Biology Metabolism and Genetic Processes

A comprehensive set of vocabulary flashcards based on key concepts from the lecture notes covering metabolism, biosynthesis, the Calvin cycle, nucleotides, DNA/RNA processes, and antibiotic mechanisms.

Metabolism

The sum of all life-sustaining chemical reactions in organisms.

Anabolic reactions

Reactions that build molecules from smaller units, requiring energy.

Catabolic reactions

Reactions that break down molecules into smaller units, releasing energy.

Exergonic reactions

Reactions that release energy.

Endergonic reactions

Reactions that require energy to proceed.

Biosynthesis (anabolism)

The process by which living organisms produce larger molecules from smaller ones; it is anabolic.

Essential Elements: C, H, O, N, S

Reduction: by reducing agents such as NADPH

Energy: Coupling rxns to ATP hydrolysis

Calvin Cycle

A series of biochemical reactions that take place in the chloroplasts of photosynthetic organisms to fix carbon dioxide.

Organisms performing the Calvin Cycle

Plants, algae, and some bacteria.

Source of electrons and ATP for the Calvin Cycle

Derived from the light-dependent reactions of photosynthesis.

Source of carbon in the Calvin Cycle

Carbon dioxide (CO2) from the atmosphere.

Overall goal of the Calvin Cycle

To convert carbon dioxide into glucose.

Location of the Calvin Cycle in prokaryotes

In the cytoplasm.

Nucleosides

Molecules consisting of a nitrogenous base and a sugar.

Nucleotides

Building blocks of nucleic acids, consisting of a nucleoside and one or more phosphate groups.

Bond connecting nucleotides

Phosphodiester bond.

Purines

Nitrogenous bases with a two-ring structure; adenine (A) and guanine (G).

Pyrimidines

Nitrogenous bases with a single-ring structure; cytosine (C), thymine (T), and uracil (U).

Complementary bases

Bases that pair together in DNA; adenine pairs with thymine (A-T) and cytosine pairs with guanine (C-G).

Bond between complementary bases

Hydrogen bonds; A-T has 2 bonds, C-G has 3 bonds.

Key differences between RNA and DNA

RNA is single-stranded and has uracil instead of thymine; DNA is double-stranded and contains thymine.

Semiconservative replication

DNA replication process where each new DNA molecule consists of one old strand and one new strand.

Leading strand

The strand of DNA that is synthesized continuously during replication.

Lagging strand

The strand of DNA that is synthesized discontinuously in short segments.

Direction DNA polymerase III travels

3' to 5' direction on the template strand.

Direction DNA polymerase III synthesizes DNA

5' to 3' direction.

Role of primers

Short nucleic acid sequences that provide a starting point for DNA synthesis.

Transcription

The process of copying a segment of DNA into RNA.

Location of transcription in prokaryotes

In the cytoplasm.

Where RNA polymerase binds

To the promoter region of a gene.

RNA polymerase recognizes the promoter by

Through specific sequences that signal the start of a gene.

Direction RNA polymerase travels

3' to 5' on the template strand.

Direction RNA polymerase synthesizes mRNA

5' to 3'.

Strand used by RNA polymerase

The template strand of DNA.

Steps of translation

Initiation, elongation, and termination of protein synthesis.

Function of codons

Triplets of nucleotides in mRNA that specify amino acids.

Function of anti-codons

Triplets of nucleotides in tRNA that pair with codons in mRNA.

Roles of RNA involved in translation

mRNA (messenger), rRNA (ribosomal), tRNA (transfer).

Key features of mRNA

Carries the genetic code from DNA to ribosomes for protein synthesis.

Key features of tRNA

Transports specific amino acids to the ribosome during protein synthesis.

Sizes of ribosomal subunits

Large subunit (50S in prokaryotes) and small subunit (30S in prokaryotes).

A, P, and E sites on the ribosome

A site holds the incoming tRNA, P site holds the growing polypeptide chain, and E site is where tRNA exits.

Bond formed between amino acids

Peptide bond.

Location of translation in prokaryotes

In the cytoplasm.

Narrow-spectrum drugs

Antibiotics effective against a limited range of bacteria.

Broad-spectrum drugs

Antibiotics effective against a wide range of bacteria.

Mechanism of action of ciprofloxacin

Inhibits bacterial DNA gyrase, preventing DNA replication.

Mechanism of action of streptomycin

Inhibits protein synthesis by binding to the 30S ribosomal subunit.

Mechanism of action of erythromycin

Inhibits protein synthesis by binding to the 50S ribosomal subunit.

Louis Pasteur

Discovered Germ Theory!! Louis Pasteur was a French chemist and microbiologist who revolutionized medicine with his discoveries in vaccination, fermentation, and pasteurization. He's often called the "father of microbiology" and a pioneer of immunology.

Florence Nightingale

Introduced sanitation and hygiene measures in hospitals. English social reformer, statistician, and the founder of modern nursing.

Ignaz Semmelweis

Advocated for handwashing and antiseptic procedures in hospitals.

Joseph Lister

pioneer of antiseptic surgery and preventive healthcare

Robert Koch

Developed Koch’s postulates to prove Germ theory and identified pathogens

Epidemic

sudden, rapid increase in cases of a disease within a specific, localized population, community, or region

Pandemic

epidemic that has spread across multiple countries or continents, affecting a large number of people worldwide

Infection

Occurs when a pathogen or parasite enters or begins to grow on a host

1st step to disease

Germs: including bacteria, viruses, fungi, protozoa, helminths, and prions

Primary Pathogens

Cause disease in healthy hosts

Opportunistic Pathogens

Only cause disease in a compromised host

Pathogenicity

Ability to cause disease

Infectivity

How easy an organism causes disease

Virulence

How severe a virus is

2nd step to disease

Reservoir: Disease reservoir such as human, animal, or environmental, where a disease normally lives, grows, or multiplies

Zoonotic Reservoirs

Animal harbored pathogens that can be transmitted to humans.

This includes Ebola and Rabies (Bats), Plague and Hantavirus (rats), as well as Anthrax and Salmonella (livestock).

Human Reservoirs

Human harbored diseases, has both symptomatic and asymptomatic carriers.

Environmental Reservoirs

Non-living environments where pathogens thrive, such as soil (tetanus and botulism) and water (cholera and legionella)

Step 3 of infection

Portal of Entry (ex. mouth, skin, cuts, eyes)

Step 5 of infection

Portal of Exit, germs getting out (mouth (vomit and saliva), cuts in skin (blood), urine, and fecal matter)

Step 4 of infection

Transmission of pathogen to a human host; the infection moves from one individual to another

Types of Transmission

Direct contact, indirect contact, vector, vehicle, fomite

Fomite

Any inanimate object or surface that, when contaminated with or exposed to infectious agents

Vehicle

edible fomite

Vector

An agent that carries and transmits an infectious pathogen into another living organism

Portals of Entry and Exit

Mouth (foodborne pathogens), Respiratory tracts (airborne pathogens), Parenteral route (anything other than mouth/respiration).

Step 6 of Infection

Human host susceptibility

Factors that influence human host susceptibility

Pathogenicity, Portal of Entry, Strength of Immune System, Individual characteristics

Morbidity

Sickness or disease is caused

Mortality

Death

Epidemiology

the study of how diseases and health-related states are distributed within populations, investigating who gets sick, where, and why

Ways to break the chain: Susceptible Host

Immunization, treatment, health insurance, patient education

Ways to break the chain: Infectious Agent

Early diagnosis, Antimicrobial stewardship

Ways to break the chain: Reservoir

Cleaning, disinfection, sterilization, pest control

Ways to break the chain: Portals of Exit and Entry

Hand hygiene, PPE, Respiratory Etiquette, Waste disposal, and splatter control, first aid, removal of catheters and tubes

Ways to break the chain: Mode of transmission

Hand Hygeine, PPE, Food Safety, Cleaning, Isolation

Coupled Reactions

A coupled reaction in biology is a process where an energetically favorable (exergonic) reaction drives an unfavorable (endergonic) one, allowing cellular processes to proceed.

Chemoorganoheterotrophy

organisms that obtain both their energy and carbon source from organic compounds

Photolithoautotrophs

organisms that obtain energy from sunlight, use inorganic compounds as electron donors, and utilize carbon dioxide as their carbon source to synthesize organic materials

Chemolithoautotrophs

prokaryotic microorganisms that derive energy from the oxidation of inorganic chemical compounds and use carbon dioxide

chemoorganoheterotrophs

organisms that obtain both energy and carbon from organic compounds

Chemo: Indicates they obtain energy from chemical reactions (oxidation) rather than light

Organo: Means they use organic compounds as electron donors.

Heterotroph: Means they require organic carbon for growth and cannot fix carbon dioxide on their own

photolithoautotroph

an organism that produces its own food (autotroph) using light as an energy source (photo) and inorganic compounds as an electron source (litho).

chemolithoautotroph

Chemo: Energy comes from chemical reactions (oxidation).

Litho: Electrons are sourced from inorganic minerals or compounds ("rock").

Autotroph: Carbon is fixed from to create their own food (organic biomass).

DNA Structure

1. Double stranded helix

2. Uniform Diameter

3. Right twist (every 10 base pair)

4. Anti-Parallel Strands

Prokaryotic DNA

Circle of Closed DNA (Plasmid)

DNA-A

Initiator protein at origin

DNA-B

helicase

DNA gyrase/ Topioisomerase II

relieves DNA supercoiling

Single stranded binding proteins

Seperates strands for replication

DNA Primase

Synthesis of an RNA primer

DNA Polymerase III

Major Replicator Enzyme