A&P 1 Lab midterm

Anatomy defintion

studies the form and structure of the body

• examine the relationships among parts of the body as well as the structure of individual organs 

Physiology definition

examines how the body functions

•  examine how organs and body systems function under normal circumstances and abnormal ones too

microscopy definition

• Examines structures that cannot be observed by the unaided eye 

• specimen under the microscope

• cytology and histology

cytology definition

the study of body cells and their internal structure

histology

• study of tissues

tissues are groups of…

cells

gross anatomy

• aka macroscopic anatomy

• Investigates structures visible to the unaided eye

• dissected for examination

systemic anatomy

•  studies anatomy of each functional body system

regional anatomy

• examines all of the structures in a particular region of the body 

what counts as the arm?

shoulder to elbow

what counts as the forearm?

elbow to wrist

what counts as the lower limb/extremity?

hip and below

what counts as the thigh?

hip to knee

what counts as the leg?

knee to foot

surface anatomy

• focuses in superficial anatomic markings and internal body structures

comparative anatomy

•  examines similarities and differences in anatomy of different species 

embryology

• studies developmental changes from conception to birth

pathologic anatomy

•  examines anatomic changes resulting of disease (patho is abnormal)

• Considers anatomic and microscopic changes

radiographic anatomy

• investigates internal structures visualized by scanning procedures 

cardiovascular physiology

• functioning of the heart, blood vessels, and blood

neurophysiology

• functioning of the nerves and nervous system organs 

respiratory physiology

•  functioning of respiratory organs (ex: lungs)

reproductive physiology

•  functioning of reproductive hormones and reproductive cycle

pathophysiology

•  relationship between the function of an organ system and disease or injury to the system 

properties common to organisms

• exhibit complex organization and order

• engage in metabolism

• all grow and develop

• all exhibit responsiveness

• all exhibit regulation

• all reproduce

metabolism

• the sum of all chemical reactions that occur within the body 

• composed of anabolism and catabolism

anabolism

• small molecules joined to form larger ones-build

catabolism

• -large molecules broken down into smaller ones-destroy

homeostasis

• ability of an organism to maintain a consistent internal environment or “steady state”

simplest to most complex level

• Chemical level (most simple)

• Cellular level 

• Tissue level

• Organ level 

• Organ system level 

• Organismal level (most complex)

chemical level

• involves in atoms and molecules

• macromolecules

• organelles

atoms definition

smallest unit of matter

molecules definition

• one or more combined atoms (sugar, vitamins)

macromolecules

• more complex molecules

• ex: proteins and DNA

organelles

• Microscopic subunits in cells cmpised of macromolecules 

cellular level

• consists of cells

• Basic units of structure and function in organisms

• Vary widely in structure, reflecting specializations needed 

• formed from atoms and molecules from chemical level 

cells

smallest living structures

tissue level

• consists of tissue

• 4 types of tissues

tissues defintion

• groups of similar cells performing common functions 

what are the 4 types of tissues?

epithelial, connective, muscle, nervous

epithelial tissue

• covers exposed surfaces and lines body cavities

connective tissue

• protects supports, and binds structures and organs 

muscle tissue

produces movement

nervous tissue

conducts nerve impulses

organs

•  two or more tissue types performing specific functions 

• ex:the small intestine composed of all four tissue types, working to process and absorb digested nutrients

organ system level

• Contained related organs that work together to achieve a common function 

  • Eg: organs of the digestive system working together to digest food, absorb nutrients, and expel waste products 

organismal level

• Highest level of structural organization 

• All body functions working interdependently in an organism, the living being 

anatomic position

• Anatomists use a specific position of the body as a point of common reference

• Termed the anatomic position

  • Upright stance

  • Feet parallel and flat on the floor 

  • Upper limbs at the sides of the body 

  • Palms face anteriorly (toward the front)

  • Head is level 

  • Eyes look forward 

section definition

• slice or cut to expose internal anatomy 

plane definition

• imaginary flat surface passing through the body 

what are the 3 major planes?

coronal, midsagital, transverse

anterior

• front of the body

• aka ventral

posterior

• back of the body

• aka dorsal

coronal plane

• Vertical plane dividing the body into anterior (front) and posterior (back)

• Also called frontal plane

superior

above/toward the head

inferior

away from head

transverse plane

• Horizontal plane dividing the body into superior (top) and inferior (bottom)

• Aka cross-sectional plane 

midsagittal plane

Vertical plane dividing the body into EQUAL left and right halves

sagittal plane

• Divides a structure into left and right at any number of sites (doesn’t matter if its not equal)

• Parallel to midsagittal plane 

oblique plane

• Pass through structures at an angle 

proximal

nearer to the trunk

distal

farther from the trunk

posterior aspect

• Contains cavities completely encased in bone 

• Physically and developmentally distinct from the ventral cavity 

• Subdivided into the cranial cavity and the vertebral cavity

cranial cavity

•  (endocranium) formed by bones of the cranium 

  • Houses the brain 

vertebral cavity

•  formed by the bones of the vertebral column 

  • Houses the spinal cord 

ventral cavity

• Larger, anteriorly placed

• Does not completely encase organs in bone 

• Partitioned into a superior thoracic cavity and an inferior abdominopelvic cavity (separated by the diaphragm) 

• Linked with serous membranes,

serous membranes

continuous layer of cells

parts of the microscope

integumentary system

• consists of the skin and its derivatives 

  • Nairs, hair, sweat glands, sebaceous glands

the integument

• is the skin covering the body

  • Aka the cutaneous membrane

  • Barrier to the outside world 

  • Visual indicator of our physiology and health 

  • Its scientific study and treatment termed dermatology 

integument facts

• Body’s largest organ 

• Protects internal body structures 

• Accounts for 7-8% of body weight 

• Area ranges between 1.5-2m^2

• Thickness ranges between q.5 mm and 4.0 mm

underlying connective tissue

• Provides strength and resilience 

• Contains smooth muscle associated with hair follicles

nervous tissue

• provides information about touch, pressure, temperature, and pain 

epidermis

• Stratified squamous epithelium

• Keratinized

• contains strata

• Layers from deep (bottom) to superficial (top)

  • Statum basale

  • Stratum spinosum 

  • Stratum granulosum 

  • Stratum lucidum 

  • Stratum corneum 

dermis

• Deeper layer 

• Primarily dense irregular connective tissue

subcutaneous layer

• Deep to dermis 

• Layer of alveolar and connective tissue 

• Termed subcutaneous layer or hypodermis 

• Not part of the integumentary system

  • Plays a role but beneath the skin  

strata

specific layers

3 layers that have living keratinocytes

• Statum basale

• Stratum spinosum 

• Stratum granulosum 

Most superficial 2 layers with dead keratinocytes 

• Stratum lucidum 

• Stratum corneum 

stratum basale

• Deepest epidermal layer 

• Aka stratum germinativum or basal layer

• Single layer of cuboidal to low columnar cells 

• Attached to underlying basement membrane membrane 

  • Separates the epidermis from the dermis

the stratum basale is occupied by these 3 cell types:

• Keratinocytes

• Melanocytes 

• Tactile cells

keratinocytes

• Most abundant cells in epidermis 

• Found in all layers 

• Many kertinocytes stem cells present in this layer 

• Divide to regenerate new cells 

• Replace old cells shed at the surface 

• Name derived from the synthesis of keratin

keratin definition

Protein that strengthens the epidermis

melanocytes

• Scattered among keratinocytes 

• Produce and store pigment (melanin) in response to UV light 

• Transfer pigment granules (melanosomes) into keratinocytes

melanin

pigment

melanosomes

pigment granules

• Accumulate around nucleus of keratinocytes

• Shield nuclear DNA from UV radiation

• Responsible for the darker tones of skin

tactile cells

• Aka Merkel cells 

• Few in number 

• Sensitive to touch 

• When compressed, release chemicals 

  • Stimulate sensory nerve endings

stratum spinosum

• Several layers of polygonal keratinocytes 

• Aka spiny layer 

• Daughter cells from stratum basale pushed into this layer 

• Begin to develop into specialized, non-dividing keratinocytes 

  • Some in deepest level still dividing cells 

• desmosomes

desmosomes

Nondividing keratinocytes attached by intercellular junctions

stratum granulosum

• 3 to 5 layers of keratinoocytes 

• Aka granular layer

• Superficial to the stratum spinosum 

• First layer of keratinization

stratum lucidum

• 2 to 3 layers of keratinocytes 

• Translucent layer aka clear layer 

• Superficial to the stratum granulosum 

• Found only on thick skin within the palms and soles 

• Filled with a translucent protein, eledin 

keratinization

• Process where keratinocytes fill with keratin 

• Causes nucleus and organelles to disintegrate 

• Fully keratinized cell dead but structurally sound 

• Process not complete until more superficial layers 

eledin 

• translucent protein

• Intermediate product in keratin maturation

stratum corneum

• 20 to 30 layers of dead, interlocking keratinized cells 

  • Cells anucleate (without a nucleus) and tightly packed 

  • Plasma membrane enclosing keratin protein 

  • Aka hornlike layer

  • Most superficial layer of epidermis 

  • Surface unsuitable for the growth of many microorganisms 

    • Secretions of exocrine glands also helping prevent growth

thick skin

• On the palms of hands, soles of the feet, and surfaces of fingers and toes 

• Has all 5 layers of epidermal strata 

• Has sweat glands 

• Has no hair follicles or sebaceous glands 

• From 0.4 to 0.6 mm thick

thin skin

• Covers most of the body 

• Lacks a stratum lucidum 

• Has sweat glands, hair follicles, and sebaceous glands 

• From 0.075 to 0.150 mm thick

hemoglobin

• an oxygen binding compound (present in RBCs)

• Bright red color upon binding oxygen 

• Gives blood vessels in dermis a reddish tint 

• Seen most easily in fair skinned individuals 

• More visible if blood vessels dilate

color from melanin

• Pigment produced and stored in melanocytes 

• Occurs in black, brown, tan , yellow-brown shades 

• Transferred to keratinocytes in stratum basale 

• Amt in skin varies according to heredity and light exposure 

  • UV stimulates melanin production’

• All people with same number of melanocytes 

color from carotene

• Yellow-orange pigment 

• Acquired from yellow-orange veggies 

• Accumulates inside subcutaneous fat and keratinocytes of stratum corneum 

• Converted to vitamin A within the body

roles of carotene

• In vision 

• In reducing free radicals 

• In immune function