Key Thinkers in Politics and Society

Flashcards covering key political and sociological thinkers, their defined terminology, and major theoretical frameworks as presented in the lecture notes.

Human nature

The ways of thinking, feeling and acting that all human beings are said to have naturally.

State of nature

The conditions of human beings before being organised into societies or having political association.

Social contract

An agreement among members of society to sacrifice their individual freedom for protection from the ruler or authority.

Absolute sovereign

Unlimited authority or power to the ruler.

Law of nature

According to John Locke, the state where humans will naturally seek out peace, believing it was made by God and humans have a duty to make it work.

Inalienable right

A right that you are born with, such as the right to property as long as it does not hinder another person's right to property.

Critical consciousness

Critical thinking skills that Paulo Freire felt students needed to question the outside world with.

Banking concept of education

A process of education that likened students to "containers" to be "filled" by their teachers, requiring them to memorise and repeat ideas without understanding.

Problem-posing education

A method of teaching that places the emphasis on critical thinking and encouraging students to question ideas and discuss.

Praxis

The combination of action with "serious reflection"; using a theory in a practical way.

Culture circles

Groups where students come together with a teacher to learn from each other through dialogue and reflective participation.

Equality of condition

The belief that people should be as equal as possible in relation to the central conditions of their lives to ensure everyone has roughly equal prospects for a good life.

Social lottery

A lottery at birth concerning the conditions into which a person is born, such as privileges or suffering based on their location or family.

Natural lottery

A lottery at birth concerning favourable aspects of the human condition that are randomly allocated, such as intelligence or athletic ability.

Minimal state

Robert Nozick's concept of a state that provides only the basics—law and order—which are the only things a citizen can be taxed for.

Invisible hand principle

Nozick's argument that individuals trying to improve their conditions naturally arrive at the point of a minimal state.

Utopia (Nozick)

A framework where people are free to set up their own societies if they are not happy with the one they are in, provided they do not force others to join.

Communist theory

A social and economic theory that aims to create a classless society where wealth and resources are shared equally among everyone.

Alienation

Feeling disconnected or separated from one's own labour, the products created, other people, or human nature, specifically in a capitalist society.

Means of production

The resources, tools, and infrastructure necessary for the production of goods and services, including factories, machinery, raw materials, and labour power.

Bourgeoisie

The capitalist class who own the means of production in a capitalist system.

Proletariat

The working class who only have their labour to sell in a capitalist system.

False consciousness

A state where workers are unaware that they are being exploited and manipulated by the capitalist system.

Class consciousness

A state where the working class becomes aware of their oppression, eventually leading to the overthrow of the capitalist class.

Private patriarchy

Patriarchal power exerted within the family and interpersonal relationships, often through control of women's labour, sexuality, and reproduction.

Public patriarchy

Patriarchal power embedded in broader social, economic, and political structures such as the legal system, labour markets, and education.

Unpaid labour

Work that is not recognised or compensated within the formal economy, such as caring for family members or household chores.

Libertarian socialism

A system where all citizens co-operate and participate freely in all decisions that affect them, as advocated by Noam Chomsky.

Propaganda model

A five-point model (Ownership, Advertising, Elite, Flak, Common Enemy) explaining how systemic bias functions in corporate mass media.

Capabilities approach

An approach focusing on what a person can achieve with their possessions and the opportunities available to them, rather than just basic rights.

Social minimum

Martha Nussbaum's idea of an equal foundation or starting point for all people, based on the human capabilities approach.

Clash of civilizations

Samuel Huntington's theory that cultural values and traditions are the primary sources of conflict in the post-Cold War world.

Cultural fault lines

Divisions within society or between countries arising from differing cultural values, beliefs, or practices where conflict is likely to occur.

Orientalism

Edward Said's critique of the Western portrayal of the East as exotic, savage, and inferior, reinforcing a sense of "Occident" superiority.

Othering

The process by which the West marginalises the East as different and alien to construct its own identity and assert dominance.

Essentialism

The belief that things have inherent, fixed, and unchanging qualities that define their true nature and distinguish them from others.

Nationalism

An ideology that gives a sense of unity to people by imposing shared cultural, historical, and linguistic identities, often to the exclusion of other nations.

Imagined community

A socially constructed group of people who share characteristics and feel connected despite never knowing all other members.

Overheating

Thomas Hylland Eriksen's term for rapid, unequal, and uneven global changes leading to unintended dramatic results and crisis feelings in localities.

Localisation

Taking on local customs and cultures to adapt to an area, often as a response to the uncertainty of globalisation.

Cosmopolitanism

The idea that all humans are members of one single community and should be world citizens part of a universal community.

Cultural hybridisation

The merging and blending of different elements of various cultures into new forms.

Genetically modified organisms (GMOs)

Plants or organisms altered in a laboratory to exhibit specific traits, such as resistance to pests or herbicides.

Seed freedom

The right of farmers and communities to use traditional and locally adapted seeds, resisting corporate control and patents.

Ecofeminism

A theory exploring the intersectionality between environmentalism and feminism, linking the treatment of women to the treatment of the earth.

Eco-theology

The exploration of the relationship between religion, spirituality, and the environment, advocating for the protection of the earth.

Biocide

The deliberate and widespread killing of diverse species resulting from human activities like deforestation and pollution.

Dependency theory

A critical analysis arguing that the underdevelopment of certain regions is a result of their economic and political dependence on developed countries.

Core states (Metropoles)

Wealthy, industrialised nations that dominate the global economy and extract resources from less developed regions.

Periphery states (Satellites)

Less developed countries that are economically and politically dependent on the core, serving as sources of cheap labour and raw materials.

Colonisation

The act of establishing control over a foreign territory, involving settlement and exploitation of its resources by a dominant power.