Congress

1. Where in the Constitution is Congress established, and what does that article say about legislative power?

Article I; it states that all legislative powers are vested in Congress, which consists of the House and Senate.

2. How long is a term of Congress? What is a session? What number Congress are we currently in?

A term is 2 years; each year is a session; currently the 119th Congress (2025-2026).

3. How many members are in the House of Representatives? When was that number frozen?

435 members; frozen in 1910.

4. What are the qualifications to serve in the House? In the Senate?

House: 25 years old, 7-year citizen, state resident. Senate: 30 years old, 9-year citizen, state resident.

5. How are House members elected, and how are seats distributed among the states?

Direct election; seats distributed by population through reapportionment.

6. How were senators originally chosen? What changed that, and when?

Originally chosen by state legislatures; changed by the 17th Amendment in 1913 to direct election.

7. Who is the presiding officer of the Senate according to the Constitution? Who holds real power in the Senate?

The Vice President is presiding officer; the Majority Leader holds real power.

8. What is the difference between reapportionment and redistricting? Who is responsible for redistricting?

Reapportionment reallocates seats among states; redistricting redraws district lines; states (usually legislatures) handle redistricting.

9. What did the Supreme Court rule in Wesberry v. Sanders (1964)?

Congressional districts must have roughly equal populations.

10. What is gerrymandering? What factors should be considered when drawing district lines (contiguity, compactness, community of interest, political boundaries)?

Drawing district lines to favor a political group; factors include contiguity, compactness, community of interest, and respecting political boundaries.

11. What are the enumerated powers of Congress? Which chamber initiates tax and spending bills?

Powers listed in Article I (tax, spend, regulate commerce, declare war, etc.); the House initiates tax and spending bills.

12. What is the "Necessary and Proper" (Elastic) Clause, and why is it significant?

It allows Congress to make laws needed to carry out its powers, expanding its authority.

13. What is a bill of attainder, and why is Congress prohibited from passing one?

A law declaring someone guilty without trial; prohibited to protect due process.

14. What is an ex post facto law, and why is Congress prohibited from passing one?

A law that criminalizes actions after they occur or increases punishment; prohibited for fairness.

15. How do checks and balances work between Congress and the executive branch? Between Congress and the judicial branch?

Congress makes laws, president enforces/vetoes; Senate confirms appointments; courts interpret laws; Congress can limit courts and create lower courts.

16. What does the demographic profile of Congress look like? How has diversity in Congress changed?

Mostly white, upper-middle class professionals; diversity has increased with more women and minorities.

17. Why do incumbents have such a large advantage in congressional elections? What is the typical reelection rate?

Name recognition, fundraising, and constituent services; over 90% reelection rate.

18. What kinds of work do members of Congress do on a daily basis?

Attend committee meetings, draft legislation, do casework, meet constituents, media work, and campaign.

19. What is the difference between policy representation, allocative representation, casework, and symbolic representation?

Policy: advance issues; allocative: secure funds/projects; casework: help individuals; symbolic: represent values.

20. What is the difference between descriptive and substantive representation?

Descriptive: shared traits; substantive: shared views.

21. What is the difference between the delegate model and the trustee model of representation?

Delegate follows constituents' wishes; trustee uses personal judgment.

22. What factors influence how members of Congress vote?

Party, president, constituents, interest groups, and personal values.

23. What is hyperpartisanship, and how does polarization make it worse?

Strong party loyalty overriding other considerations; polarization increases division and ideological distance.

24. How is party leadership structured in the House? Who is the current Speaker? Who is the Minority Leader?

Speaker leads (Mike Johnson); Minority Leader (Hakeem Jeffries); includes majority/minority leaders and whips.

25. How is party leadership structured in the Senate? Who is the current Majority Leader? Who is the Minority Leader?

Majority Leader (John Thune); Minority Leader (Chuck Schumer); VP is ceremonial presiding officer.

26. What are the steps in the legislative process, from bill introduction through presidential action?

Introduction → committee → hearings/markup → floor debate → vote → conference committee → final vote → president (sign, veto, etc.).

27. What happens to most bills in committee? What is a discharge petition?

Most bills die in committee; a discharge petition can force a bill out of committee.

28. What role does the House Rules Committee play? Why is it called "the Speaker's Committee"?

It sets rules for debate; called that because the Speaker controls it.

29. What are the different types of presidential action on a bill (sign, let become law, regular veto, pocket veto)? What is the difference between a regular veto and a pocket veto?

Sign = law; no action = law after 10 days (if in session); regular veto = returned with explanation; pocket veto = dies if Congress adjourns.

30. What is a filibuster? How can the Senate end one? How many votes does cloture require for legislation? For presidential nominees?

A delay tactic; ended by cloture; requires 60 votes for legislation and 51 for nominees.

31. What is a conference committee, and when is one formed?

A temporary committee formed to reconcile differences between House and Senate versions of a bill.