AP Lang Fallacies 4/22

False Choice

Presenting a situation as having only two outcomes when other options exist.

Example "You’re either with us, or you’re with the enemy."

Amphiboly

A fallacy of ambiguity where a sentence has a double meaning due to awkward sentence structure.

Example "The doctor said he would see the patient in his office."

Argumentum ad Ignorantiam

Arguing that a claim is true simply because it has not been proven false.

Example "No one has proven that aliens haven't visited Earth, so they must be here."

Fallacy

A flaw in reasoning or a "trick" of logic that weakens an argument.

Example Using a personal insult instead of evidence to win a debate.

Red Herring

Introducing an irrelevant topic to divert attention away from the original issue.

Example "I shouldn't be punished for cheating because look at all the students who skip class."

Ad Hominem

Attacking the character or traits of the opponent rather than their actual argument.

Example "You can't trust his economic policy because he has a messy house."

Straw Man

Misrepresenting or oversimplifying an opponent's argument to make it easier to attack.

Example "If you support school uniforms, you clearly want to strip children of their entire individuality."

Ad Nauseam

The claim that a statement is true simply because it has been repeated many times.

Example A brand constantly repeating a slogan until people believe it is the best product.

Special Pleading

Applying a rule to others while making oneself an exception without a valid reason.

Example "Everyone must follow the speed limit, but I'm an important person so it's okay for me to speed."

Slippery Slope

Claiming that a small first step will inevitably lead to a chain of extreme and negative events.

Example "If we let students use calculators, eventually they won't even know how to add 2+2."

Hasty Generalization

Drawing a broad conclusion based on a sample size that is too small or unrepresentative.

Example "I met two rude people in that city, so everyone who lives there must be mean."

Post Hoc

Assuming that because Event B followed Event A, Event A must have caused Event B.

Example "I wore my lucky shirt and then got an A, so the shirt caused the high grade."

Composition

Wrongly assuming that what is true of the parts must also be true of the whole.

Example "This tire is made of rubber, so the entire car must be made of rubber."

Division

Wrongly assuming that what is true of the whole must also be true of its individual parts.

Example "This is a wealthy neighborhood, so everyone living here must be rich."

Non Sequitor

A conclusion that does not logically follow from the previous evidence or statement.

Example "She is a great athlete, so she will make a fantastic governor."

Black or White

Presenting two extreme poles as the only options while ignoring the "gray" area.

Example "You either love your job or you hate it; there is no in-between."

Ad Populum

Arguing that something is true or right because it is popular or many people believe it.

Example "Everyone is using this app, so it must be the safest one available."

Begging the Question

A circular argument where the conclusion is already assumed in the premises.

Example "The law is good because it is the law."

Equivocation

Using a single word or phrase in two different senses within the same argument to mislead.

Example "Giving money to charity is the right thing to do, so charities have a right to our money."

Ad Verecundiam

Appealing to the authority of an irrelevant or unqualified person to support a claim.

Example "A famous basketball player says this cereal cures colds, so it must work."

Ad Baculum

An appeal to force or fear; threatening the listener to accept a conclusion.

Example "Agree with my decision, or you'll be demoted."

Accident

Applying a general rule to a specific case where the "accidental" circumstances make the rule inapplicable.

Example "You should always return what you borrow, so you must return that loaded gun to your angry friend."

Ad Misericordium

An appeal to pity or emotion to gain acceptance for a conclusion.

Example "I know I missed the deadline, but I've been so stressed and my car broke down."

Complex Question

Asking a question that has a presumption built into it, making it impossible to answer without looking guilty.

Example "Do your parents know you're still failing your classes?"

Truth is in the Middle

Assuming that the compromise position between two extremes is always the correct one.

Example "One person says 2+2=4 and another says 2+2=6, so the answer must be 5."

Accent

Changing the meaning of a statement by shifting the emphasis on specific words.

Example "I didn't say he stole the money" (implying someone else did)