ap bio final review

structure of amino acid and what molecules does it have

carbon, amino group, carboxyl group, hydrogen, side chain

CHONS

what is lipid function

energy storage, membranes, hormones

__________ proteins are made in cytoplasm, imported into the _________, and assembled with ______ in the _______ into ribosomal ___________.

ribosomal proteins are made in cytoplasm, imported into the nucleus, and assembled with rRNA in the nucleolus into ribosomal subunits

endomembrane system

The endomembrane system is a group of membranes in eukaryotic cells that work together to make, modify, and transport proteins and lipids

What’s included in the endomembrane system?

Think of it as a connected “shipping + processing network”:

• Nuclear envelope (surrounds nucleus)

• Rough endoplasmic reticulum (rough ER)

• Smooth endoplasmic reticulum (smooth ER)

• Golgi apparatus

• Transport vesicles

• Lysosomes (in animal cells)

• Plasma membrane

What it does (big idea):

It moves materials through the cell using vesicles, like a delivery system.

Main jobs:

1. Make proteins and lipids (ER)

2. Modify and sort them (Golgi)

3. Transport them in vesicles

4. Export them or send them to organelles

5. Break things down (lysosomes)

nucleic acid function

store and transmit genetic info

protein functions

• 🔬 Enzymatic (Catalysts): Speed up chemical reactions (e.g., lactase breaks down lactose, amylase breaks down starch).

• 🛡 Defense: Recognize and neutralize pathogens (e.g., antibodies/immunoglobulins).

• ✈ Transport: Carry small molecules across membranes or throughout body fluids (e.g., hemoglobin transports

  O2

  𝑂2

  ; proton pumps move

  H+

  𝐻+

  ).

• 🧬 Signal/Regulation: Act as chemical messengers between cells (e.g., hormones like insulin regulate blood sugar).

• 🏗 Structure: Provide physical support and strength (e.g., collagen in skin/tendons, keratin in hair/nails, tubulin in microtubules).

• 🔄 Movement/Contractile: Enable cells or organisms to move (e.g., actin and myosin in muscles).

• 🎒 Storage: Store amino acids for development (e.g., casein in milk, albumin in egg whites). 

where is phosphorus found

nucleic acids, phospholipids

nucleic acid molecules

CHONP

what molecules is nitrogen in

amino acids (amino group) and nucleic acids (nitrogenous base)

carbohydrate bond name

glycosidic bond

what is the carbohydrate bond between

OH group of monosaccharides

what molecules is peptide bond between

COOH and NH2

what molecules is phosphodiester bond between

sugar and phosphate

shape of carbs

chains or rings

describe how rRNA goes to the rough er

rRNA (nucleolus) → ribosome (cytoplasm) → signal sequence?

• Yes → rough ER (membrane/export proteins)

• No → stays free (internal proteins)

shape of protein

folded shape (structure is function)

DNA structure

double helix

RNA structure

single strand

mRNA

messenger RNA

tRNA

delivering specific amino acids to ribosomes during translation

rRNA

It acts as a ribozyme to catalyze peptide bond formation (protein synthesis) and provides a structural scaffold for ribosomal proteins. Located in the nucleolus (eukaryotes) or cytoplasm (prokaryotes), rRNA binds mRNA and tRNA during translation

are ribosomes in all organisms

yes

Prokaryotes (and inside Mitochondria/Chloroplasts) have what type of ribosomes .

70s

eukaryotes have what kind of ribosomes

80s

Proteins destined to stay in the ______, ________, or _______ are synthesized on free ribosomes in the cytoplasm, not the Rough ER.

Proteins destined to stay in the cytosol, mitochondria, or nucleus are synthesized on free ribosomes in the cytoplasm, not the Rough ER.

Proteins synthesized on the RER are for secretion (out of the cell), integral membrane proteins, or residency in organelles within the endomembrane system.

rough er function

how to know if protein made in rough er or free ribosome

• Function:

  • Secreted proteins (leave the cell)

  • Membrane proteins (embedded in membranes)

  • Endomembrane system proteins (Golgi, lysosomes, vesicles)

Free ribosome proteins:

• Stay in the cytoplasm while being made

• Function:

  • Used inside the cell (cytosol, nucleus, mitochondria, etc.)

structure and function of golgi

• Modification: Modifies proteins and lipids, notably through glycosylation (adding sugar chains) and phosphorylation.

• Sorting and Packaging: Sorts products based on final destination (e.g., lysosome, plasma membrane, or secretion) and packages them into new vesicles.

• Secretory Pathway: Essential for exporting substances via exocytosis (e.g., secreting hormones, mucus, or matrix components).

• Lysosome Formation: Produces lysosomes used to break down waste.

• Carbohydrate Synthesis: Synthesizes polysaccharides, such as pectin and hemicellulose for plant cell walls

a change in nucleotide sequence changes _______

change in amino acid sequence means change in ________ folding

condons

protein folding

triglyceride

glycerol + 3 fatty acids

phospholipid

glycerol + 2 fatty acid tails + phosphate head

how many carbon rings is a steroid

4

how does a lysosome do apoptosis

by releasing their acidic, enzyme-rich contents into the cytosol through lysosomal membrane permeabilization (LMP

how does vacuole keep turgor pressure

stores water, pushes against cell wall, keeps plant rigid

cell wall in plants

cellulose

cell wall in fungi

chitin

cel wall in prokaryotes

peptidoglycan

atpase

ATPases are enzymes that catalyze the decomposition of ATP into ADP and a free phosphate ion

Na+/K+ pump

what goes in and out

3 Na out, 2 K in

how does the Na+ / K+ pump keep membrane potential

Makes it more negative inside. By moving a net charge of +1 (three positive charges out, two positive charges in) out of the cell per cycle, the pump directly contributes to maintaining a resting membrane potential of roughly -70 mV.

water moves from ____ solute to _____ solute

low solute to high solute

why did mitochondria come first

all eukaryotes have the, only some have chloroplast

evidence for endosymbiosis theory

mitochondria and chloroplast have their own dna, double membrane, and ribosomes like bacteria

endosymbiosis theory means

mitochondria and chloroplast were once bacteria

what are hormones made of

• Amino Acid-Derived/Peptide Hormones: These are small molecules or proteins (like insulin or epinephrine) that usually act quickly and often have names ending in "-ine".

• Steroid Hormones: These are lipid-soluble molecules derived from cholesterol, such as cortisol, testosterone, and estradiol, which often remain in circulation longer and have names ending in "-ol" or "-one

water moves from _____ water potential to ______ water potential

HIGH Ψ → LOW Ψ

smooth ER function

Responsible for lipid synthesis (phospholipids/cholesterol), detoxification of drugs and toxins, and storing calcium ions.

what is water potential

The tendency of water to move.

water moves always moves to where there is _____ solute. this is when water potential is (higher or lower)

more, negative

What does “low water potential” mean?

More negative, less free water (more solute)

How does more solute affect water potential?

Makes Ψ more negative

What is pressure potential (Ψp)?

Physical pressure on water (like cell walls)

Where does water move based on solute?

Toward higher solute concentration

Where does water move based on water potential?

Toward more negative Ψ

Water moves DOWN the gradient (high → low Ψ)

in photosynthesis, hydrogen protons go from the __________ to the ___________.

stroma to the thylakoid

What process splits water to provide electrons? Where do the hydrogens, oxygen, and electrons go

Photolysis (in Photosystem II), hydrogen in the thylakoid space, electrons go to replace ones lost in ps2

the thylakoid space (inside the thylakoid) has a _____ concentration of hydrogen ions

high

what is a byproduct of photosynthesis? where does it come from

oxygen, water splitting by ps2

What is the overall equation for photosynthesis?

6CO₂ + 6H₂O + light → C₆H₁₂O₆ + 6O₂

What is the purpose of the light reactions?

Convert light energy into ATP and NADPH (energy carriers)

Where do the electrons in photosynthesis originally come from?

Water (H₂O)

Why is water essential for photosynthesis?

It is the source of electrons that power the entire electron transport chain

What is this ATP-producing process called in photosynthesis?

photophosphorylation

What molecule is the final electron acceptor in photosynthesis?

NADP⁺ → becomes NADPH

Where do the electrons in glucose ultimately come from?

Water (H₂O) via NADPH

What is carbon fixation?

CO₂ is attached to RuBP to begin sugar production

What are the 3 phases of the Calvin cycle?

• Carbon fixation

• Reduction

• Regeneration of RuBP

What is lactic acid fermentation?

A process cells use to keep making ATP when oxygen is not available by regenerating NAD⁺.

What is the main purpose of fermentation?

To regenerate NAD⁺ from NADH so glycolysis can continue producing ATP without oxygen.

How much ATP does fermentation produce?

0 ATP directly (ATP comes only from glycolysis → 2 ATP per glucose total)

What are the steps of alcohol fermentation?

• Pyruvate → acetaldehyde + CO₂

• Acetaldehyde + NADH → ethanol + NAD⁺

What is the final electron acceptor in alcohol fermentation?

Acetaldehyde

What organisms use alcohol fermentation?

Yeast and some bacteria

What is lactic acid fermentation?
A process where pyruvate is ________ to ________ to regenerate NAD⁺.

reduced to lactate