PSCI 104S Midterm 2 Study Guide

What function does the immune system serve?

Tissues, organs, and processes that protect the body from invasion. Locates foreign microorganisms, mutant cells, or damaged cells and activates processes to eliminate them.

What is the purpose of inflammation in the immune system response? 

Works to restore tissue damaged by invaders. Blood vessels in the area of injury dilate causing redness and warmth. Damaged cells release enzymes that help destroy invaders.

Granulocytes & macrophages migrate to the site of injury to help destroy invaders.

What is a secondary immune response?

Some sensitized T-cells and B-cells (called memory lymphocytes) replicate and are held in reserve for next time pathogen invades. May be held for years before activated. When activated, same as initial response, but faster. This response is considered immunity. This system is called humoral immunity because it occurs in the blood stream - especially effective in fighting viruses in cells, parasites, and mutated body cells.

What does “suppression” of the immune system mean? 

a reduction in the body's ability to fight infections and diseases due to a weakened immune system. This occurs when white blood cells, antibodies, or other defense components are reduced or malfunctioning, making the person highly vulnerable to bacteria, viruses, and pathogens. 

How can we create immunity to a virus? 

Training the immune system to recognize and fight pathogens using vaccines or natural infection. Vaccines (mRNA, weakened, or inactivated) safely induce antibodies and T-cells, providing the safest method to build immunity. A healthy lifestyle, including adequate sleep, nutrition, and exercise, keeps the immune system prepared to respond

What is an autoimmune disease and what are some examples of autoimmune diseases? 

Occur when the immune system attacks the body; not well understood. Lupus, rheumatoid arthritis, multiple sclerosis, allergies.

What did Ader and Cohen demonstrate about the immune system? 

Using classical conditioning, taught a rat to associate sweet tasting water with a chemical that suppressed the immune system. They drank the solution and then were injected with the immune suppressing drug. The immune system was suppressed with just the water after removing the injection.

What is psychoneuroimmunology? 

Multidisciplinary field focusing on interactions among behavior, the nervous system, the endocrine system, and the immune system.

What has Janice Kiecolt-Glaser’s research shown about stress and the immune system?

Showed that medical students had more symptoms of infectious disease before and after exams. They drew blood and found that evidence that the immune

system functioning was suppressed. More recent studies show anxious students show lower immune functioning, demonstrating that the effect of immune function was specific to situation and psychological state.

What is the diathesis-stress model? 

Some individuals are vulnerable to stress-related diseases because either genetic weakness or biochemical imbalance inherently predisposes them to those diseases. These

diseases may not occur without environmental stress, however.

What kinds of health behaviors may increase the relationship between stress and disease? 

Stress may increase unhealthy behaviors like smoking, drinking, overeating, poor sleep, and lack of exercise, which raise disease risk.

What did Sheldon Cohen’s research show about the relationship between stress and colds? 

Higher the stress, the higher the likelihood of getting a cold. Duration matters more than severity. Acute severe stress < 1 month didn’t lead to cold. Severe chronic stress > 1 month led to substantial increase in colds. People who are were more sociable and agreeable developed fewer colds than others after exposure to cold virus

What did David Phillip’s research show about culture and the number 4? 

Phillips found that Chinese and Japanese Americans had a significantly higher risk of cardiac death on the 4th day of the month, compared to other days. Phillips concluded that the stress related to the cultural belief that the number 4 (which sounds like "death" in Cantonese, Mandarin, and Japanese) is unlucky can be intense enough to trigger fatal cardiac events.

How is stress related to HIV? 

Stress affects both the progression of HIV infection and the affected person’s immune response to antiviral drug treatment. Stress also predicts periodic outbreaks of herpes simplex virus (HSV). 

How much is stress related to heart disease, asthma, arthritis, ulcers, and headaches?

Heart disease: People who have heart attacks name stress as a cause of their disorder. Stress increases risk of attack.  Positive stress – heart attack rates went up when Germany played in the world cup – 3 x higher for men and 2 x higher for women within 2 hours of game start time.  Increases heart rate, raises blood pressure. The immune system increases inflammation, which increases coronary artery disease. The repeated release of cortisol can make the development of plaque in the arteries more likely.

Asthma: Proinflammatory cytokines may have a fundamental or even causal role in development of disorder. Stressors, such as emotional events & pain can trigger asthma attacks. Kids living in inner-city with parents who have mental problems showed sharply heightened risk.

Arthritis: heavily linked to arthritis, acting as a major trigger for flare-ups, increasing pain intensity, and accelerating joint damage. It triggers the release of cortisol and adrenaline, which can spike inflammation—the driving force behind autoimmune forms like rheumatoid arthritis (RA) and psoriatic arthritis. Studies indicate even a small increase in stress can significantly raise the risk of flare-ups, with research showing that 41 out of 54 studies found a direct link between chronic stress and increased arthritis severity

Ulcers: Stress is not a major factor in ulcers. People used to think it was. Dr. Barry Marshall thought it was caused by a bacteria. He couldn’t get funding to do a study, so he infected himself with it! He had effects like an ulcer and it went away when he took antibiotics. Thus, he thought it was directly related to the bacteria.

Headaches: Stress is a leading cause of headaches, acting as a primary trigger for tension headaches and activating migraines for roughly 70% of sufferers. It induces headaches by causing muscle tension in the neck, shoulders, and scalp, and through vascular changes in the brain. Chronic stress can turn episodic headaches into daily, chronic pain

How does stress affect pregnancy and the birth of the child?

Mothers who are stressed are more likely to deliver preterm babies and babies with lower birth weights. Chronic stress is more damaging than acute stress. Stress later in pregnancy is more damaging than earlier stress.

What is the link between stress and psychological disorders?

Chronic stress is a major risk factor for psychiatric conditions, often acting as a trigger for anxiety, depression, bipolar disorder, and PTSD. It causes long-term activation of the body's fight-or-flight system, leading to harmful, sustained exposure to cortisol, which disrupts brain chemistry, impairs cognitive function, and can alter brain structure

What parts of the brain are involved in the sensory and emotional aspects of pain? 

Thalamus, somatosensory cortex, insular cortex, anterior cingulate cortex (ACC), and the amygdala

What did Henry Beecher’s study of soldiers at Anzio beachhead during World War II show about the pain of the soldiers? 

Anesthesiologist for soldiers wounded at the Anzio beachhead during World War II.  He noted that despite serious battle injuries, many of the men reported very little pain. These men had been removed from the battlefront and from the threat of further injury or death. They were cheerful and optimistic, whereas normal surgical patients experienced much more pain and requested more pain killing drugs. He thought the intensity of suffering is largely determined by what the pain means to the patient. Size of the wound bears only a small relationship to how much pain is experienced.

What are pain behaviors and how can they be affected by other people? 

Visible actions—such as limping, grimacing, groaning, or avoiding activity—that people exhibit to communicate pain and protect themselves, often serving to manage discomfort in the moment. These behaviors are significantly influenced by social contexts, where interactions can unintentionally reinforce pain, causing it to persist, or provide support that improves function

What is the specificity theory of pain?

 Proposes that pain is a dedicated, independent sensation with its own specialized sensory receptors (nociceptors) and neural pathways, separate from sensations like touch or temperature. It argues that pain signals travel directly from the skin to a specific "pain center" in the brain, mapping intensity directly to tissue damage

What is the gate control theory of pain? 

Explains how psychological influences that are manifested in the brain may influence the experience of pain. During a war or sports victory, the brain sends messages closing the gate.

What factors open or close the pain gate? 

OPEN: Physical: Extent of injury, Inappropriate activity level. Cognitive: Focusing on the pain, Boredom. Emotional conditions: Anxiety, worry, Depression; anger.

CLOSE: Medications, Heat, massage, Pressure. Cognitive: Distraction, Concentration. Emotional conditions: Relaxation, Positive emotions

What was the neuromatrix theory of pain? 

Ronald Melzack’s extension of the gate control theory. Focused on how different parts of the brain are involved in the increasing or decreasing the experience of pain.

What methods have been used to measure pain? 

Self-report, Behavioral assessment, Physiological measures

What is the difference between migraine and tension headaches? 

Migraines are severe, throbbing, one-sided, and often accompanied by nausea and light sensitivity, while tension headaches are mild-to-moderate, dull, aching band-like pressure on both sides. Migraines can last 4–72 hours, whereas tension headaches typically last 30 minutes to a few days

What are the most common types of pain?

Acute pain – is ordinarily adaptive (a good thing), lasts a relatively short period of time, and includes pain from cuts, burns, and other physical trauma.

Chronic pain – endures beyond the time of normal healing, is relatively constant, is often reinforced by other people, and may become self-perpetuating.

Pre-chronic pain – is experienced between acute and

Chronic pain and is critical because during this time the pain may either go away or evolve into chronic pain.

What conditions contribute to low back pain? 

Infections, Degenerative diseases, Cancer (rare)

What proportion of people with low back pain has an identified cause? 

20%

What is the difference between rheumatoid and osteoarthritis and who they affect?

Osteoarthritis (OA) is a "wear-and-tear" degenerative disease causing cartilage breakdown, commonly affecting older adults in weight-bearing joints (knees, hips). Rheumatoid Arthritis (RA) is an autoimmune disease where the immune system attacks joint linings, typically affecting smaller joints (hands, feet) symmetrically, often starting earlier in life

How well do physicians and nurses estimate the pain of patients? 

Moderate to good accuracy in assessing patient pain, though they often underestimate it compared to patient self-reports

What do we know about the risk of opiate drugs for pain patients?

Opiate drugs have powerful analgesic effects but also produce tolerance and dependence. Concern about addiction can lead to under-prescription, which can harm pain recovery. The recent increase in prescription analgesic drugs was due mostly to the demand for oxycodone (Oxycontin) and Hydrocodone.  Would oxycontin lead to less or more active coping with pain? Study showed more active coping

What are alternative and complementary medicines and how are they different from conventional medicine? 

Alternative medicine: used instead of conventional medicine. Complementary medicine: used along with or as a complement to conventional medicine. Neither practice is rooted in Western medicine.

What are the main limitations of alternative and complementary medicine? 

A significant lack of rigorous scientific evidence, minimal regulation regarding safety and potency, and potential risks for serious side effects or dangerous interactions with conventional medications. Lacks standard training for practitioners, is rarely covered by insurance, and may cause dangerous delays in treating serious conditions

What are the main ancient systems of medicine? 

Originated in China > 2,000 years ago and remains a major medical approach in Asian countries. A vital force called qi (or chi) animates the body, flowing through channels in the body called meridians. Meridians connects parts of the body to each other and to the universe as a whole.

What are naturopathy and homeopathy?

Naturopathy & homeopathy aren’t ancient systems of medicine. Naturopathy arose in 19th century Europe and holds the view that bodies have the power to maintain and return to a state of health. Some practitioners train in naturopathic colleges and receive doctoral degrees (N.D. or N.M.D.); some don’t have doctoral degrees. Homeopathy Arose in the 1700s in Germany as an alternative to harsh medical treatments of the time. Based on the principle of “like cures like” – substances have curative power when they produce symptoms like those of disease. Like all alternative medical systems, takes a holistic approach to health and treatment, including emotional and psychological factors. Popularity of naturopathy and homeopathy in U.S. has declined

What does research say about the effectiveness of acupuncture and chiropractic? 

Acupuncture: Review of literature shows it is more effective for some forms of pain than others. Better for neck pain than shoulder or elbow pain. Better for tension-type headache than migraine. Increasing evidence of reduction of arthritis knee pain. Among the most effective treatments for back pain, but none of the treatments were very effective. Effective when combined with standard medical care for chronic pain.

Chiropractic: Approach has become so well accepted that it is covered bymany insurance plans. About 8% of adults in the U.S. used chiropractic treatment within the last year. Most often used for back and neck pain and somewhat effective for both conditions.

How are demographic factors related to the use of alternative and complementary medicine?

Higher usage rates commonly found among females, individuals with higher education levels, and those with higher income

What is integrative medicine?

Mixture of both conventional medicine and CAM. “Best of both worlds”. Faces the challenge of melding very different philosophies of treatment but offers benefits of both approaches. Two areas in which integrative medicine is advancing most rapidly are pain management and cancer treatment.

What are mindfulness meditation and transcendental meditation? 

Mindfulness meditation: Origins in ancient Buddhist practice but adopted for modern stress relief. Usually sit in a relaxed, upright posture and focus on any thoughts or sensations as they occur, trying to enhance awareness of perceptions and thoughts in a nonjudgmental way.

Transcendental:  Usually sit with eyes closed and muscles relaxed, focusing on breathing, and silently repeating a sound, such as “om” or another personally meaningful word or phrase. Repetition of mantra meant to distract from outside thoughts.

What has brain imaging shown about the effects of mindfulness meditation?

Mindfulness meditation & brain imaging. During mindfulness meditation, left frontal lobe of brain becomes more active, and right lobe becomes less active (Davidson et al., 2003). Consistent with an increase in the experience of positive emotions

What problems are mindfulness meditation and transcendental meditation effective for? 

Reducing stress, anxiety, and depression, while improving emotional regulation, sleep quality, and cardiovascular health

What are guided imagery, hypnosis, and biofeedback? 

Guided imagery: 1. Replicate peaceful scenes to promote relaxation 2. Substitute a less desirable behavior with a healthier one 3. Aimed at healing a damaged part of body. Images need to be self-generated. Must be a positive connotation to image. Should involve as many senses as possible – can use pictures or sounds to start but then do without.

Hypnosis: Trancelike state, originated in the late 1700s. Controversy over whether hypnosis is an altered state of consciousness or a generalized trait that some people have. Must be open to experience to be hypnotized. Not effective for every kind of pain or every kind of patient.

Biofeedback: Electronic measurement of various biological responses.  Immediate relaying of that info to person being tested

What problems are guided imagery, hypnosis, and biofeedback effective for?

Biofeedback: Lower back pain, Tension headache, Migraine headache, Raynaud’s disease. Hypnosis: Cancer pain, burn pain, surgery pain. Guided imagery: chronic pain, quality of life in cancer patients, hypertension, obesity, headaches

What are coronary arteries, atherosclerosis, arteriosclerosis, ischemia, and myocardial infarctions?

CORONARY ARTERIES: Supply blood to the myocardium (heart muscle). The proximity of the coronary arteries to the heart makes them particularly susceptible to damage

MYOCARDIAL INFARCTION (MI): Heart attack; the death of myocardial tissue. Signs: feeling weak or dizzy, nauseous, cold sweating, difficulty breathing, pain in chest/arms/shoulders/back. Half of people who experience a myocardial infarction survive

 ISCHEMIA - restriction of blood flow

ARTHEROSCLEROSIS: a chronic, slow-developing disease where plaque—a buildup of fat, cholesterol, calcium, and other substances—accumulates inside artery walls, causing them to thicken, harden, and narrow

ARTERIOSCLEROSIS: the broad term for hard arteries, regardless of what caused them to harden

What are the strongest predictors of heart attacks and stroke? 

High blood pressure (hypertension), high LDL cholesterol, smoking, and elevated blood sugar (diabetes or pre-diabetes)

What are high- and low-density cholesterol and how are they related to heart disease? 

HDL – high density lipoprotein (“good cholesterol”) – protects against heart disease. LDL – low density lipoprotein (“bad cholesterol”) – risk factor for heart disease. Triglycerides – also a risk factor for heart disease.

What kinds of foods offer protection against heart disease? 

People who eat a diet high in fruits and veggies have a lower risk of heart attack

What is Type A personality and what part of Type A personality puts people at the greater risk for heart disease? 

A Type A personality is characterized by high levels of competitiveness, intense ambition, impatience, time urgency, and aggressiveness. The specific component that poses the greatest risk for heart disease is hostility, along with associated anger and chronic stress

How are marital status and gender (whether a person is male or female) related to heart disease? 

Men have a slightly higher risk of death from CVD than women. low social support and poor marriages increase risk of CVD

What racial / ethnic groups have higher rates of heart disease and why? 

African Americans have higher risk – may be related to discrimination.

Why are an-inflammatory drugs like aspirin related to lower risk of heart disease? 

Aspirin reduces heart disease risk primarily by acting as an anti-platelet agent, making blood "less sticky" to prevent clots that cause heart attacks and strokes and destabilize plaque in arteries

How have health psychologists contributed to heart health? 

Health psychologists contribute to heart health by addressing the behavioral, emotional, and social factors that influence cardiovascular disease. They help patients manage stress, anxiety, and depression, which are linked to heart conditions, while promoting healthy lifestyle changes like smoking cessation, improved diet, and increased physical activity.

What is the difference between heart patients who do and do not participate in cardiac rehabilitation?

Heart patients who participate in cardiac rehabilitation (CR) have significantly better outcomes—including up to 42% lower readmission rates and lower mortality—compared to non-participants

What is cancer? 

Group of disease characterized by the occurrence of new cells that grow and spread beyond control

What is the difference between benign and malignant tumors and how are they related to metastasis? 

 Benign – remain localized; usually less threatening.  Malignant – spreads(metastasis); usually more dangerous because they can invade and destroy surrounding tissue

What are the biggest reasons for declining death rates due to cancer? 

Death rates from cancer declined in the 1990s due to: Early detection and treatment. Lifestyle factors (better diets, less smoking) – large role in decline. Cancer with decreasing death rates:  Lung, breast, prostate, colon/rectum

What are the strongest inherent and behavioral risk factors for cancer?

Inherent: Ethnic background, Family history, Advancing age.

Behavioral: Smoking, Diet, Alcohol, Sedentary Lifestyle, UV light exposure, Sexual behavior

What is the most common and what is the deadliest cancer for women? 

Most common: Breast, Lung & Bronchus, Colon & Rectum, Corpus & Uterus, Thyroid

Most deadly: Lung & Bronchus, Breast, Colon & Rectum, Pancreas, Ovary

What is the most common and what is the deadliest cancer for men? 

Most common: Prostate, Lung & Bronchus, Colon & Rectum, Urinary Bladder, Skin Melanoma

Most deadly: Lung & Bronchus, Prostate, Colon & Rectum, Pancreas, Liver & Bile Duct

What factors may account for the different cancer death rates across ethnic backgrounds? 

Socioeconomic inequities, unequal access to quality healthcare, lifestyle differences, and underlying genetic or tumor biology factors

African Americans have greater incidence for most cancers and greater mortality.  Differences most likely due to behavioral and psychosocial factors, not biological. Diagnoses for African Americans tend to come at a later stage, which means lower survival rates. Other ethnic minorities do not show this increased incidence even though they also tend to be diagnosed at later stages of their cancer. 

Asian Americans generally have lower total cancer death rates than other ethnic groups, but much higher mortality rate for stomach and liver cancer. Stomach cancer is highly correlated with diet and chronic H. pylori bacterial infection. Liver cancer highly correlated with infection and hepatitis C infection

What are the risk factors for cervical cancer? 

HPV is group of over 200 viruses – more than 40 are spread through sexual contact. About 12 high-risk HPVs – two types, HPV types 16 and 18 are responsible for most HPV related cancers. About 70% of cervical cancers caused by HPV types 16 and 18

What behavioral factors are most important for preventing cancer?

Eliminating tobacco use, maintaining a healthy weight, eating a nutrient-rich diet, limiting alcohol, and avoiding excessive UV exposure

What are the main treatments for cancer and what are their side effects? 

Main cancer treatments are surgery, radiation, and chemotherapy. All of these treatments can have negative side effects such as fear and anxiety, loss of hair, fatigue, and depression

How have health psychologists been most involved in treating people with cancer?

Health psychologists are most involved in treating cancer patients by providing psycho-oncology support to manage emotional distress, reduce pain, and improve quality of life. They primarily utilize cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) to help patients cope with diagnoses, treatment side effects, and fear of recurrence, while also fostering better communication with medical teams.