AP Psych Exam

Confirmation Bias

a tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore or distort contradictory evidence.

Hindsight Bias

the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it. (Also known as the I-knew-it-all-along phenomenon.)

Independent Variable

in an experiment, the factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied.

Confounding Variable

a factor other than the factor being studied that might influence a study’s results.

Dependent Variable

in an experiment, the outcome that is measured; the variable that may change when the independent variable is manipulated.

Random Assignment

assigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between the different groups.

Case Study

a descriptive technique in which one individual or group is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles

Correlation

a measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus of how well either factor predicts the other.

Meta-analysis

a procedure for statistically combining the results of many different research studies.

Naturalistic Observation

a descriptive technique of observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate or control the situation.

Hypothesis

a testable prediction, often implied by a theory.

Operational Definition

a carefully worded statement of the exact procedures (operations) used in a research study. For example, human intelligence may be operationally defined as what an intelligence test measures.

Replication

repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding can be reproduced.

Mean

the arithmetic average of a distribution, obtained by adding the scores and then dividing by the number of scores.

Median

the middle score in a distribution; half the scores are above it and half are below it.

Mode

the most frequently occurring score(s) in a distribution.

range

the difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution.

normal curve

(normal distribution) a symmetrical, bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many types of data; most scores fall near the mean (about 68 percent fall within one standard deviation of it) and fewer and fewer near the extremes.

Positive skew

a distribution type where the tail extends toward higher values on the right, indicating a few extreme high outliers, while most data points cluster on the left.

Negative skew

a type of data distribution where more values are concentrated on the right side (higher end) of the graph, causing a long tail to extend toward the left (lower end).

Biomodal distribution

a probability distribution with two distinct peaks (modes), indicating that data points cluster around two different values

Standard deviation

a computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score.

Regression toward the mean

the tendency for extreme or unusual scores or events to fall back (regress) toward the average.

Population

all those in a group being studied, from which samples may be drawn. (Note: Except for national studies, this does not refer to a country’s whole

Random sample

a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion.

Experimental group

in an experiment, the group exposed to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variable.

Control group

in an experiment, the group not exposed to the treatment; contrasts with the experimental group and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment.

Structured interviews

an interview process that asks the same job-relevant questions of all applicants, each of whom is rated on established scales.

Likert scale

measures attitudes, opinions, and behaviors by asking respondents to rate their level or agreement

Replication

repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding can be reproduced.

Scatterplot

a graphed cluster of dots, each of which represents the values of two variables. The slope of the points suggests the direction of the relationship between the two variables. The amount of scatter suggests the strength of the correlation (little scatter indicates high correlation).

Correlation coefficient

a statistical index of the relationship between two things (from −1.00 to +1.00).

Statistical significance

a statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance.

Informed consent

giving potential participants enough information about a study to enable them to choose whether they wish to participate.

Informed assent

consent for a child or cognitively impaired individual to participate in research

Debriefing

the postexperimental explanation of a study, including its purpose and any deceptions, to its participants.

Heredity

the genetic transfer of characteristics from parents to offspring.

nature–nurture issue

the longstanding controversy over the relative contributions that genes and experience make to the development of psychological traits and behaviors. Today’s science sees traits and behaviors arising from the interaction of nature and nurture.

Opponent process theory

the theory that opposing retinal processes (red-green, blue-yellow, white-black) enable color vision. For example, some cells are stimulated by green and inhibited by red; others are stimulated by red and inhibited by green.

fixed interval

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed.

fixed-ratio schedule

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses.

variable interval

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals.

variable ratio

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses.

parasympathetic nervous system

the division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving its energy.

serial position effect

our tendency to recall best the last (recency effect) and first (primacy effect) items in a list.

foveal vision

the sharp, detailed central vision produced by the fovea, a small, cone-packed depression in the retina

perceptual set

a mental predisposition to perceive one thing and not another.

mere-exposure effect

the phenomenon that repeated exposure to novel stimuli increases liking of them.

retroactive interference

the backward-acting disruptive effect of newer learning on the recall of old information.

proactive interference

the forward-acting disruptive effect of older learning on the recall of new information.

sensory neurons

neurons that carry incoming information from the body’s tissues and sensory receptors to the brain and spinal cord.

motor neurons

neurons that carry outgoing information from the brain and spinal cord to the muscles and glands.

homeostasis

a tendency to maintain a balanced or constant internal state; the regulation of any aspect of body chemistry, such as blood glucose, around a particular level.

Yerkes-Dodson law of arousal

the principle that performance increases with arousal only up to a point, beyond which performance decreases.

GABA

A major inhibitory neurotransmitter-Undersupply linked to seizures, tremors, and insomnia.

norepinephrine

Helps control alertness and arousal-Undersupply can depress mood.

Acetylcholine

Enables muscle action, learning, and memory-With Alzheimer’s disease, ACh-producing neurons deteriorate.

A heuristic approach

a practical, "rule of thumb" method for problem-solving that prioritizes speed and efficiency over finding the perfect solution

What are the chargers of a resting neuron?

Both are negative

morphemes

the elementary units of meaning.

Phoneme

in a language, the smallest distinctive sound unit.

intrinsic motivation

a desire to perform a behavior effectively for its own sake.

social facilitation

improved performance on simple or well-learned tasks in the presence of others.

deindividuation

the loss of self-awareness and self-restraint occurring in group situations that foster arousal and anonymity.

Hawthorne effect

a phenomenon where individuals modify or improve their behavior, typically increasing productivity, in response to their awareness of being observed

reticular formation

a nerve network that travels through the brainstem into the thalamus and plays an important role in controlling arousal.

corpus callosum

the large band of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres and carrying messages between them.

hypothalamus

a neural structure lying below (hypo) the thalamus; it directs several maintenance activities (eating, drinking, body temperature), helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland, and is linked to emotion and reward.

cerebral cortex

the intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells covering the cerebral hemispheres; the body’s ultimate control and information-processing center.

Frontal lobes

the portion of the cerebral cortex lying just behind the forehead; involved in speaking and muscle movements and in making plans and judgments.

parietal lobes

the portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the top of the head and toward the rear; receives sensory input for touch and body position.

occipital lobes

the portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the back of the head; includes areas that receive information from the visual fields.

temporal lobes

the portion of the cerebral cortex lying roughly above the ears; includes the auditory areas, each receiving information primarily from the opposite ear.

motor cortex

an area at the rear of the frontal lobes that controls voluntary movements.

somatosensory cortex

an area at the front of the parietal lobes that registers and processes body touch and movement sensations.

Central nervous system

the brain and spinal cord.

peripheral nervous system

the sensory and motor neurons that connect the central nervous system (CNS) to the rest of the body.

nerves

bundled axons that form neural cables connecting the central nervous system with muscles, glands, and sense organs.

Interneurons

neurons within the brain and spinal cord; they communicate internally and process information between the sensory inputs and motor outputs.

somatic nervous system

the division of the peripheral nervous system that controls the body’s skeletal muscles. Also called the skeletal nervous system.

autonomic nervous system

the part of the peripheral nervous system that controls the glands and the muscles of the internal organs (such as the heart). Its sympathetic division arouses; its parasympathetic division calms.

Neuron

a nerve cell; the basic building block of the nervous system.

cell body

the part of a neuron that contains the nucleus; the cell’s life-support center.

dendrites

a neuron’s often bushy, branching extensions that receive and integrate messages, conducting impulses toward the cell body.

axon

the neuron extension that passes messages through its branches to other neurons or to muscles or glands.

myelin sheath

a fatty tissue layer segmentally encasing the axons of some neurons; enables vastly greater transmission speed as neural impulses hop from one node to the next.

glial cells

cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons; they also play a role in learning, thinking, and memory.

action potential

a neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon.

threshold

the level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse.

refractory period

in neural processing, a brief resting pause that occurs after a neuron has fired; subsequent action potentials cannot occur until the axon returns to its resting state.

Reuptake

a neurotransmitter’s reabsorption by the sending neuron.

endorphins

“morphine within”—natural, opiate-like neurotransmitters linked to pain control and to pleasure.

Agonist

a molecule that increases a neurotransmitter’s action.

antagonist

a molecule that inhibits or blocks a neurotransmitter’s action.

Threshold

the level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse.

Multiple sclerosis

an autoimmune disease of the CNS where the immune system attacks myelin sheath covering nerve fibers in the brain and spinal cord

Myasthenia gravis

a chronic autoimmune neuromuscular disorder characterized by weakness of voluntary muscles

Excitatory neurotransmitters

chemical messengers that increase the likelihood a target neuron will fire action potential

Inhibitory neurotransmitters

chemical messengers that decrease the likelihood of a neuron firing an action potential

Dopamine

Influences movement, learning, attention, and emotion-Oversupply linked to schizophrenia. Undersupply linked to tremors and decreased mobility in Parkinson’s disease.