Chemistry Unit #2

Carbohydrate

organic compounds that act as a primary energy source

Monosaccharide

simple sugars. glucose, fructose, galactose, ribose, and deoxyribose

Disacchardies

two monosaccharides. maltose, lactose, and sucrose

Polysaccharides

more than 10 monosaccharides, exogenous or endogenous. Starch, glycogen, and cellulose

Oligosaccharide

3-10 monosaccharides

Salivary and Pancreatic Amylase

breaks down polysacchardie into disaccharides

Maltase, lactase, and sucrase

breaks down disaccharide into monosaccharide

Glycolysis produces energy

now

Glycogen produces energy

for later today

Triglycerdies produce energy

for the future

Building supplies

keto acids, amino aids, and nucleic acids

Glycolysis (EMP)

Glucose goes in with 2 ATP - pyruvate, NADH, and 2 ATP come out

Cellular Respiration

consits of citric acid cycle and oxidative phosphorylation (ETC)

Citric Acid Cycle

pyruvate, NADH, and 2 ATP go in - NADH, FADH2, CO2, and 1 ATP come out

Oxidative Phosphorylation

NADH, FADH2, CO2, and 1 ATP go in - NAD+, FAD, H2O, and 28 ATP come out

Fermentation

anaerobic process that makes 2 ATP from lactate and NAD+. After glycolysis

Hexose monophosphate pathway (HMP) (Pentose phosphate pathway (PPP))

HMP converts glucose into ribose and NADPH which makes DNA/RNA

Glycogenesis

conversion of glucose to glycogen in the liver. glycogen stores in liver

Glycogenolysis

breakdown of glycogen to provide fuel between meals

Glycogenolysis in Liver

glycogen turns into glucose by glucose-6-phosphate

Glycogenolysis in muslce

glycogen is put into glycolysis by glucose-6-phopshate

Gluconeogenesis

glucose formed from non-carb sources. amino acids, triglycerides, and lactate

Ketone bodies

produced by liver during prolonged fasting or low-carb diets

3 Major Ketones

acetone 2%, acetoacetic acid 20%, beta-hydroxybutyric acid 78%

Urine Ketones

Reagent strip tests for acetoacetic acid, reference range is negative

Serum/Plasma Ketones

less than 1mg/dL and tests for beta-hydroxybutyrate

Insulin

reduces glucose in serum by allowing entry into cell. Synthesized by beta cells in pancreas. Fed State

Counterregulaotry Hormones

glucagon, epinephrine, cortisol, growth hormone, and T4/T3. Increase glucose in serum

Glucagon

increases glucose in serum, synthesized by alpha cells of pancreas. Fasted state

Insulin stimualtes

glycolysis, glycogenesis, and lipogenesis

Insulin inhibits

glycogenolysis, gluconeogenesis, lipolysis

Glucagon inhibits

glycolysis, glycogenesis, and lipogenesis

Glucagon stimulates

glycogenolysis, gluconeogenesis, and lipolysis

Serum/Plasma glucose reference range

fasting is 74-100. Post-prandial is less than 140

Whole blood glucose reference range

10% lower than plasma

Urine glucose reference range

less than 15

CSF glucose reference range

60-70% plasma (40-70)

Serum/Plasma glucose critical value

hypoglycemia is less than 40. Hyperglycemia is more than 500

CSF Critical Value

hypoglycorrhachia is less than 40

Serum/Plasma collection for glucose

in the morning with an 8-10 hour fast. Must be spun within an hour or use grey-top tube.

Grey-top tube

sodium fluoride prevents glycolysis within the tube

Lipids

store energy, cell membrane, bile salt precursor, and steroid hormone precursor

Fatty Acids

linear chains of C-H bonds ending in carboxyl group -COOH

Saturated fatty acid vs. Unsaturated fatty acid

single bonds vs. double bonds

Essential Fatty Acids

get from diet. Linoleic = omega 6, Alpha-linolenic acid (ALA) = omega 3

Triglyceride

3 fatty acids bound to glycerol by ester bond. Non-polar

Phospholipids

2 esterfied fatty acids and hydrophobic phosphate group, 1 saturated and 1 unsaturated. ampipathic

Glycolipids

cell to cell recognition, ABO blood group antigens, and cellular receptors

Cholesterol

ampipathic unsaturated lipid. component of lipid bilayer created fluidity. precursor to steroid hormones and bile acids

Lipoproteins

lipid and protein that act as transport of lipids

Lipoprotein external layer

cholesterol and phospholipids

Lipoprotein Core

hydrophobic and neutral triglycerides and cholesteryl esters

Larger lipoproteins are:

less dense. more lipid to protein

Apolipoproteins

protein part of lipoprotein. ligand cell receptors, activators/inhibitors for enzymes and maintain structure of lipoprotein

Chylomicron

Largest and least dense, scatter light. Form creamy top layer and produced in intestine and enters circulation for tissues to take up lipids. Uses B48

VLDL

produced by liver, transports liver-produced triglycerides to other tissues during fasted states. Uses B100

LDL

cholesterol rich. infiltrate vessel walls extraceullar space and become oxidized and taken up my macrophages, forms foam cells which forms plaque. Uses B100

HDL

synthesized by both intestine and liver. cleans up excess cholesterol from cells. Reverse cholesterol transport. uses B1

Lipid absorption

dietary lipids digested by bile and packaged into chylomicrons

Exogenous pathway

dietary lipids digested and packed into chylomicrons which deliver to tissues then remnants get taken up by liver

Endogenous pathway

during fasted state. Liver packages triglycerides and cholesterol into VLDL. VLDL become IDL/VDL remnants. Remnants get cleared or turn into LDL

Reverse Cholesterol Transport

HDL collects excess cholesterol from peripheral tissue transports back to liver or transfer into other lipoprotein. Liver excretes cholesterol into bile or converts it into bile acids

Specimen collection for lipids

serum/plasma with a 12 hour fast

Cholesterol Methodology

enzymatic colorimetric

Triglyceride Methodology

enzymatic colorimetric

HDL Methodology

homogenous, enzymatic colorimetric

LDL Methodology

estimated by Friedewald calculation or homogenous enzymatic colorimetric

Friedewald Calculation

LDL= Total Chol - HDL - (Trig/5)

Total cholesterol reference range

140-200

HDL-C reference range

40-75

LDL-C reference range

50-130

Triglycerides reference range

60-150

Assay Standardization

lipid results guide CVD risk assessment and treatment decisions, results must be comparable between labs. CDC establishes reference methods

Glucose + glucose =

maltose

Glucose + galactose =

lactose

Glucose + fructose =

sucrose

What does glucose oxidase measure for?

color change

Decreases Trinder Reaction Results

bilirubin (icterus), uric acid, ascorbic acid

Increases Trinder Reaction Results

Bleach

What are the inputs of Trinder Reaction

Glucose, oxygen, water

What reagent is used in a Trinder Reaction

Glucose oxidase

What does a hexokinase test for?

change in UV light from NADPH

What inputs into hexokinase?

glucose and ATP

What is the reagent of a hexokinase test

hexokinase

Clinitest

obsolete test that uses copper and reducing substance