BIOL 1110 Exam 3 Study Guide

What is the genome?

The complete DNA set in an organism.

What are chromosomes?

Long DNA molecules; humans have 23 pairs.

What is a gene?

A DNA sequence (~3,000 bases) coding for a protein.

What are alleles?

Different versions of a gene; we inherit two for each gene.

What is gene expression?

The process where DNA is transcribed to RNA, which is then translated into proteins that determine traits.

What is the difference between genotype and phenotype?

Genotype refers to the alleles you carry (e.g., FF, Ff, ff); phenotype refers to the physical expression of those alleles (e.g., freckles, no freckles).

What are dominant alleles?

Alleles expressed with one or two copies.

What are recessive alleles?

Alleles expressed only when homozygous (ff).

Define homozygous and heterozygous.

Homozygous: having two identical alleles (FF or ff); Heterozygous: having two different alleles (Ff).

What is a Punnett Square?

A tool used to predict offspring genotypes.

What is multiple alleles inheritance?

More than two alleles exist in a population, such as the ABO blood type.

What is codominance?

A genetic scenario where both alleles are fully expressed, like AB blood type.

What is incomplete dominance?

A situation in which the heterozygote shows a blended phenotype, such as pink flowers from red and white parents.

What are sex-linked traits?

Traits that are located on the X chromosome.

What are mutations?

Random DNA changes that create new alleles.

What are autosomal dominant genetic diseases?

Diseases caused by one mutated allele, such as Huntington's disease.

What are autosomal recessive genetic diseases?

Diseases that require two mutated alleles, with carriers being healthy, e.g., cystic fibrosis.

What are X-linked genetic diseases?

Diseases more common in males, such as hemophilia.

What is evolution?

Change in allele frequencies over time.

What are the requirements for natural selection?

Variation, heritability, and differential reproductive success.

What are the mechanisms of evolution?

Natural selection, genetic drift, gene flow, mutation, and nonrandom mating.

What is directional natural selection?

A type of selection that shifts towards one extreme phenotype.

What is stabilizing selection?

Selection that favors intermediate phenotypes.

What is disruptive selection?

Selection that favors both extremes of a phenotype distribution.

What are some lines of evidence for evolution?

Fossils, biogeography, anatomical homology, and molecular biology.

What causes infections?

Pathogens entering the body or harmless microbes entering sterile sites.

What are the outcomes of the immune system?

Clearing microbes quickly, getting sick then recovering, or failing leading to chronic illness.

Who are populations at highest risk for infections?

Elderly, infants, immunocompromised individuals, and certain socioeconomic groups.

What is immune memory?

The formation of memory B and T cells that helps you rarely get sick twice.

What is the purpose of vaccines?

To train the immune system using antigens.

What are the treatments for various pathogens?

Viruses: antivirals; Bacteria: antibiotics; Fungi: antifungals.

How do antibiotics work?

They target cell components in bacteria but do not work on viruses.

What causes antibiotic resistance?

Mutation, natural selection, and the overuse/misuse of antibiotics.

What is photosynthesis?

The process through which plants convert sunlight, water, and CO₂ into glucose.

What are the requirements for photosynthesis?

Sunlight, water, and carbon dioxide.

Where does photosynthesis occur?

In chloroplasts, which contain thylakoids, grana, and stroma.

What are photosynthetic pigments?

Chlorophylls (reflect green, absorb red and blue) and carotenoids.

What are the two stages of photosynthesis?

Light reactions (in thylakoids) and Calvin Cycle (in stroma).

What is the greenhouse effect?

Greenhouse gases trap heat, contributing to climate change.

What are climate change indicators?

Rising CO₂ levels, rising temperatures, melting ice sheets, and declining Arctic sea ice.

What is the purpose of photosynthesis?

Plants use photosynthesis to convert sunlight, water, and carbon dioxide into glucose for energy, structure (cellulose), and storage (starch).

What are the inputs and outputs of the two stages of photosynthesis?

Inputs for light reactions: sunlight, water; Outputs: oxygen, ATP, NADPH. Inputs for Calvin Cycle: carbon dioxide, ATP, NADPH; Output: glucose.

How and where does photosynthesis take place within a plant?

Photosynthesis takes place in chloroplasts located in plant cells, specifically within the thylakoids and stroma.

How do plants absorb energy from sunlight?

Plants use pigments such as chlorophyll to absorb sunlight energy, which drives the photosynthesis process.

How does photosynthesis connect to other living things?

Photosynthesis produces oxygen and glucose, which are essential for the survival of most living organisms; it forms the base of the food chain.

How does deforestation impact climate change?

Deforestation increases carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere by reducing the number of trees that absorb CO₂, thereby contributing to climate change.

What are some potential solutions to lessen the effects of climate change?

Solutions include reducing carbon footprints, promoting renewable energy sources, reforestation, and improving energy efficiency.

Describe the greenhouse effect.

The greenhouse effect is when greenhouse gases in the atmosphere trap heat from the sun, leading to an increase in the Earth's temperature and contributing to climate change.

What is an ecological footprint?

An ecological footprint measures the amount of land and water area required to support an individual's lifestyle and absorb the waste they generate.

What is biotechnology?

Biotechnology is the use of living organisms or their systems to develop products and technologies for various applications.

What are some applications of biotechnology across various fields?

Applications include genetic engineering in agriculture, medical therapies (e.g., gene therapy), and environmental solutions (e.g., bioremediation).

Compare and contrast genetic modification (GM) and genetic engineering (GE).

Genetic modification (GM) refers to changing the genetic makeup of an organism using various methods, while genetic engineering (GE) is a specific type of GM that involves directly manipulating an organism's DNA using biotechnology techniques.

What are the basic techniques used to manipulate genetic material?

Techniques include CRISPR/Cas9, recombinant DNA technology, and gene cloning.

What are genomics and proteomics?

Genomics is the study of the complete set of genes and their functions, while proteomics is the study of the entire set of proteins produced by an organism.

What is the function of CRISPR?

CRISPR is a gene-editing technology that allows scientists to modify DNA sequences and regulate gene expression easily and precisely.

How do you predict the genotypes and phenotypes in dominant and recessive genes?

By using a Punnett Square to represent the possible combinations of alleles from the parent genotypes to determine the traits expressed.

How can you analyze Punnett squares?

Analyze the ratios of offspring genotypes and phenotypes produced based on the alleles contributed by each parent.

What factors influence the inheritance and expression of genes?

Factors include dominant and recessive alleles, environmental influences, and epigenetics.

How can you predict the outcomes of genetic diseases based on their inheritance patterns?

By understanding the inheritance pattern (autosomal dominant, autosomal recessive, X-linked) and calculating genotype probabilities using genetic diagrams.

Describe the ABO blood type system.

The ABO blood type system is determined by the presence of antigens (A and B) on red blood cells, with possible genotypes being AA, AO, BB, BO, AB, and OO, leading to four blood types: A, B, AB, and O.

What is evolution?

Evolution is the change in allele frequencies in a population over time due to processes such as natural selection, genetic drift, and gene flow.

What are the lines of evidence for evolution?

Evidence includes fossils, biogeography, anatomical homologies, and molecular biology.

What are the basic mechanisms of evolution in action in various scenarios?

Mechanisms include natural selection, genetic drift, mutation, and gene flow.

Compare and contrast the types of natural selection.

Directional selection favors one extreme phenotype, stabilizing selection favors intermediate phenotypes, and disruptive selection favors both extremes, potentially leading to speciation.

How can evolution be demonstrated in action?

Through observations of changes in allele frequencies, such as in the adaptation of species to changing environments (e.g., rock pocket mice).

What are common misconceptions about evolution?

Misconceptions include the belief that evolution is linear or that individuals evolve during their lifetime rather than populations over generations.

How do you evaluate scientific data?

Evaluate scientific data by assessing its validity, reliability, and relevance, considering sample sizes, methods used, and statistical significance.

What are the causes of infections?

Infections are caused by pathogens entering the body or harmless microbes entering sterile sites within the body.

What are the possible outcomes of infections?

Outcomes include clearing the microbe quickly without illness, becoming ill and then recovering, or failing to clear the infection and leading to chronic illness or death.

How are vaccines used in the prevention and treatment of diseases?

Vaccines train the immune system to recognize specific pathogens, providing immunity and reducing disease severity.

What are treatment options for various pathogens?

Treatment options include antivirals for viruses, antibiotics for bacterial infections, and antifungals for fungal infections.

Compare and contrast typical bacterial and viral structures.

Bacteria are living cells with a cellular structure, while viruses are non-living and consist of genetic material enclosed in a protein coat.

How can bacteria acquire antibiotic resistance?

Bacteria can acquire resistance through mutations, horizontal gene transfer, and by acquiring resistance genes from their environment or through other bacteria.

What are the reasons for the antibiotic crisis?

Reasons include overuse and misuse of antibiotics, rapid mutation of bacteria, and lack of new antibiotic developments.

What can we do to limit the spread of resistant organisms?

Measures include practicing proper hygiene, using antibiotics only when necessary, and following prescribed treatments fully.

What are some beneficial roles of prokaryotes?

Prokaryotes play crucial roles in nutrient cycling, decomposition, and as part of the human microbiome, aiding digestion and protecting against pathogens.

How do you evaluate scientific data in studies?

Evaluate by reviewing experimental design, sample sizes, methods of data collection, analysis techniques, and whether conclusions are supported by the data.