ap us government & politics

politics and stuff

administrative discretion

the authority granted to administrative agencies and public officials to use professional expertise and judgment to make decisions, rather than relying solely on strict statutory rules

concurring and dissenting opinions

separate written statements by judges in appellate cases who disagree with either the reasoning or the final judgment of the majority

Congress’s role in creating agencies

Congress holds the constitutional power to create, structure, and empower federal agencies through legislation, primarily using "enabling" or "organic" statutes

Congressional Budget Office (CBO)

a nonpartisan legislative agency created by the Congressional Budget and Impoundment Control Act of 1974 to provide Congress with objective, nonpartisan economic and budgetary analysis

constitutional checks on the bureaucracy

congressional power of the purse, Senate confirmation of top appointees, and judicial review of regulations

criminal cases vs. civil cases

criminal cases involve the government prosecuting individuals for breaking laws, aiming to punish offenses against society, while civil cases are disputes between private parties seeking compensation or resolution

day-to-day jobs of the bureaucracy

implements laws, manages public services, and enforces regulations through specialized tasks like record-keeping, auditing tax returns, managing federal prisons, and processing public assistance

demographics of the bureaucrats

the U.S. federal workforce, totaling nearly 3 million employees, is slightly more male (53.8%) and older (average age 47) than the overall civilian workforce

effect of the Great Depression and WW2 on the bureaucracy

fundamentally transformed the U.S. federal bureaucracy from a small, reactive body into a massive, proactive "administrative stat"

Federal Communication Commission (FCC)

an independent U.S. government agency, established by the Communications Act of 1934, that regulates interstate and international communications via radio, television, wire, satellite, and cable

how Congress checks the bureaucracy

primarily through oversight, using the "power of the purse" to control funding, holding hearings to investigate actions, and passing legislation to alter agency missions

how the bureaucracy can check the president

primarily through expert discretion, slow implementation of directives, and legal obligations, acting as a check on presidential power

iron triangles

the durable, symbiotic relationship between congressional committees, bureaucratic agencies, and interest groups

judicial review

the power of U.S. courts to examine and invalidate government actions (legislative or executive) that violate the Constitution, acting as a crucial check and balance

location of the Supreme Court building

it is situated in the Northeast quadrant of the city, just one block east of the United States Capitol and directly north of the Library of Congress

most recent SCOTUS judges

the three most recent appointments, all serving as Associate Justices, are Ketanji Brown Jackson (2022), Amy Coney Barrett (2020), and Brett Kavanaugh (2018)

national security council (NSC)

the President’s principal forum for considering national security and foreign policy matters, established by the National Security Act of 1947

plaintiff and defendant

the plaintiff is the party who initiates the legal action by filing a complaint, seeking remedy for alleged wrongdoing, while the defendant is the person or entity accused of that wrongdoing and is defending against the claims

problems with judges under the British

tension between judicial independence and parliamentary sovereignty, exacerbated by recent political attacks

SCOTUS demographics

The current U.S. Supreme Court consists of six white justices and three non-white justices (two Black, one Latina), with four women and five men

sittings and recesses and timing of decisions

the Supreme Court term runs from the first Monday in October to late June/early July, featuring alternating two-week sessions of “sittings” (hearing arguments) and “recesses” (writing opinions); decisions are typically released on Tuesday and Wednesday mornings, with a high concentration of rulings in late June as the term closes

structure of the cabinet departments

designed for managing the massive day-to-day operations of the federal government, with 15 executive departments

what do regulatory agencies do

encouraging business compliance with laws and regulations to ensure safety, fairness, and ethical standards

whom does the president pick for the court?

Supreme Court justices and federal judges (Article III judges), who must then be confirmed by the U.S. Senate

SCOTUS bench and conference room

the Supreme Court building features a formal courtroom with a distinct bench for oral arguments and highly confidential, private spaces for deliberations

SCOTUS number of cases per year

the Supreme Court receives roughly 7,000–8,000 petitions for review annually, but only hears oral arguments in about 60–80 cases per term

treason and espionage

espionage is the act of spying to obtain secret information, often prosecuted under the Espionage Act of 1917 to protect national defense; treason is a distinct, often higher, crime involving the violation of allegiance to one's country by aiding enemies, as defined in Article III of the U.S. Constitution

affirmative action and “reverse discriminatinon”

Reverse discrimination refers to claims that affirmative action policies, designed to increase minority representation, unfairly disadvantage members of majority groups

Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990

a landmark civil rights law signed on July 26, 1990, prohibiting discrimination against individuals with disabilities in all areas of public life, including jobs, schools, transportation, and all public and private places open to the general public

Bill of Rights

comprises the first 10 amendments to the Constitution, ratified on December 15, 1791, to limit federal power and protect individual liberties

commercial speech (and how it is not as well-protected)

commercial speech—expression primarily promoting a profit-making transaction—receives reduced First Amendment protection compared to political or personal speech in the U.S.; it is subject to heavier regulation because it is considered less vital to democratic self-governance and easier to verify for accuracy

first amendment protection of political speech

political speech is highly protected by the First Amendment and is considered the core of its protection

free exercise clause

prohibits the government from interfering with an individual's right to practice their religion, protecting both beliefs and, to a limited extent, actions

separation of church & state

the legal and philosophical principle that government and religious institutions should remain separate, ensuring the state does not establish a religion, favor one over another, or restrict religious freedom

symbolic speech

nonverbal communication—such as burning flags, wearing armbands, or protesting—that conveys a specific message protected by the First Amendment

balancing civil liberties and security/social stability

it is a continuous, evolving struggle managed by the Supreme Court using tests like strict scrutiny, often prioritizing security during crises

Civil Rights Acts of 1964/1968 as a way to enforce the 14th amendment

provided the legal tools to dismantle systemic state-sponsored discrimination

common American disabilities

roughly 13–27% of American adults live with a disability, with mobility being the most common, affecting nearly 1 in 7 adults (about 12–13%)

death penalty

a legal process where a person is executed by the state as a punishment for a crime deemed severe enough to warrant such a consequence

direct action (when discussing civil rights)

nonviolent, active, and public protest methods—such as sit-ins, boycotts, and marches—designed to directly disrupt segregation and challenge unjust laws

double jeopardy

prohibits prosecuting a person twice for the same crime by the same government after an acquittal or conviction

eighth amendment

prohibits the federal government from imposing excessive bail, excessive fines, or cruel and unusual punishments

exclusionary rule

a legal doctrine in the United States that prohibits the government from using evidence at trial that was obtained in violation of a defendant's Fourth Amendment rights (unlawful search and seizure)

freedom of assembly and its effects

enables individuals to gather peacefully for protests, rallies, and demonstrations to express views, influence policy, and hold leaders accountable

Griswold v. Connecticut (1965)

establishing that the Constitution implies a right to privacy, protected by the 14th Amendment's Due Process Clause

Hillary Rodham Clinton

a prominent American politician, diplomat, and attorney who served as the Secretary of State from 2009 to 2013 and was the first woman to be nominated for president by a major political party in 2016

Matthew Shepard

the Matthew Shepard and James Byrd Jr. Hate Crimes Prevention Act (often known as the Matthew Shepard Act) is a landmark 2009 federal law that expanded existing U.S. hate crime legislation

Miranda rights

warnings police must give suspects in custody before interrogation, stemming from the 5th Amendment's protection against self-incrimination

Obergefell v. Hodges (2015)

the Supreme Court ruled 5-4 that the 14th Amendment’s Due Process and Equal Protection Clauses guarantee same-gender couples the fundamental right to marry

procedural due process

ensures the government acts fairly before depriving individuals of life, liberty, or property, rooted in the 5th and 14th Amendments

“reasonable” search and seizure

occurs when law enforcement has a warrant based on probable cause or fits within specific exceptions

Reverend Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr.

his work connects directly to the 14th Amendment's Equal Protection Clause, focusing on civil rights and civil disobedience

rights of the accused

the presumption of innocence, the right to a speedy and public trial, legal counsel, freedom from self-incrimination, the right to confront witnesses, and protection against excessive bail and cruel punishment

second amendment

protects the right of the people to keep and bear arms

time, place, manner

content-neutral limitations imposed by the government on speech and assembly

Title IX of the Higher Education Act of 1972

landmark federal civil rights law signed on June 23, 1972, that prohibits sex-based discrimination in any education program or activity receiving federal financial assistance

Voting Rights Act of 1965

a landmark federal law designed to enforce the 15th Amendment, outlawing discriminatory voting practices like literacy tests and poll taxes

wage gap

in 2024, U.S. women earned an average of 85% of what men earned (81 cents per dollar for full-time, year-round workers)

women in the military

women in the U.S. military currently make up over 17% of armed forces, with participation growing across all branches

15th amendment (1870)

prohibits federal and state governments from denying a citizen the right to vote based on "race, color, or previous condition of servitude"

19th amendment (1920)

prohibits the federal government and states from denying U.S. citizens the right to vote on account of sex

midterm voting vs. presidential year voting

voter turnout for midterm elections tends to be lower than for presidential elections, with average turnout rates around 40-50% compared to 60-70% for presidential elections

partisanship and voting

partisanship is the primary driver of American voting behavior, with roughly two-thirds of voters identifying with a major party and casting straight-ticket ballots

political efficacy

an individual's belief that their political actions—such as voting, protesting, or contacting officials—can influence government policy and the political process

punch card voting

with punch card systems, voters punch holes in cards using a supplied punch device, to indicate votes for their chosen candidates

butterfly ballot

the butterfly ballot used in Palm Beach County, Florida, in the 2000 presidential election caused more than 2,000 Democratic voters to vote by mistake for Reform candidate Pat Buchanan, a number larger than George W. Bush’s certified margin of victory in Florida

lever machines

revolutionized US elections by offering immediate vote tallies, privacy, and guaranteed one-person-one-vote mechanics

touchscreen

the machines print a paper ballot with a QR code, a type of barcode, that scanners use to tally votes

reasons for not voting

• many Americans want to vote but can’t

• age, gender, education, socioeconomic status, and race can impact whether a person votes

• Election Day is held on Tuesdays

• voters who don’t feel candidates represent their views might choose to opt-out

• citizens are less likely to vote if they don’t think their ballot matters

voting demographics

• Hispanic voters were divided in 2024, a major shift from 2020 and 2016

• Black voters also moved to Trump but remained overwhelmingly Democratic

• Men – especially men under 50 – backed Trump by larger margins

voter turnout rates

when states lower barriers, turnout tends to rise; when they raise barriers, turnout often drops, especially among younger, lower-income, and minority voters

USCCB opinions on voting in America

the USCCB views voting as a moral obligation and a key act of faithful citizenship, urging Catholics to form their consciences, uphold human dignity, and prioritize the common good over partisan interests

Anti-Masonic Party (1831)

the first major US third party, formed in New York to oppose Freemasonry, which they viewed as an elitist, anti-republican conspiracy

Bull Moose Party (1912)

an American third party founded by Theodore Roosevelt in 1912 after he lost the Republican nomination to William Howard Taft

difference between Republicans, Independents, & Democrats

Republicans generally advocate for conservative policies, including lower taxes, reduced government regulation, and traditional social values; Democrats lean liberal, supporting a larger government role in social programs, economic regulation, and progressive tax policies; Independents, a large group often identified using the Pew Research Center analysis of Political Independents, are not affiliated with either major party and often represent "swing" voters with mixed views

Dixiecrats (1948)

a 1948 segregationist faction of Southern Democrats who broke away to form the States' Rights Democratic Party in opposition to President Truman’s civil rights initiatives

family influence on party

family, particularly parents, acts as the primary agent of political socialization, with most children adopting their parents' party identification

gridlock

a legislative stalemate where opposing parties or branches of government (e.g., Congress and the President) cannot reach a compromise, stalling the lawmaking process

bipartisanship

the cooperation and agreement between opposing political parties (typically Democrats and Republicans) to pass legislation, solve national problems, and create mutually agreeable policies

open vs. closed primaries

open primary elections are a type of primary election where voters are not required to be registered with a specific political party to participate in that party's primary; closed primary elections restrict participation to registered party members, meaning only those affiliated with a specific party can vote in that party's primary

party platforms and the National Nominating Convention

national nominating conventions are quadrennial meetings where U.S. political parties officially select their presidential/vice-presidential nominees and adopt a party platform—a statement of principles and policy goals

six eras of party (1789-1828, 1829-1860, 1861-1896, 1897-1932, 1933-1968, 1969-present)

• Federalists vs. Democratic-Republicans; focused on the strength of the federal government, with Federalists favoring a strong central government and Democratic-Republicans favoring states' rights

• Democrats vs. Whigs; defined by Andrew Jackson's populism vs. the Whig Party's opposition

• Democrats vs. Republicans; dominated by Republicans (formed to oppose slavery) and Democrats, particularly during the Civil War and Reconstruction eras

• Democratic vs. Republican; characterized by Republican dominance and the Progressive Era reforms

• New Deal Democratic Era; dominated by a Democratic coalition of voters responding to the Great Depression

• Divided Government Era; characterized by a "party switch" in the South, with Republicans dominating on cultural and economic issues, leading to intense competition between the two parties

three parts of party (party in the electorate, party as organization, party in government

• all citizens who identify with or support the party, acting as the base that votes and helps campaigns

• the professional and volunteer structure (national, state, and local committees) that runs the party, raises money, manages campaigns, and sets the platform

• elected officials (such as the President, members of Congress, and local leaders) who seek to implement the party's platform through legislation and policy

what Democrats/Republicans support

Democrats generally support a larger government role in providing social services, expanding healthcare, protecting civil rights, and investing in environmental protection; conversely, Republicans advocate for limited government involvement in the economy, lower taxes, robust national defense, and strong border security

AARP

the nation's largest nonprofit, nonpartisan organization dedicated to empowering Americans 50 and older to choose how they live as they age

NRA

America's longest-standing civil rights organization

“get out the vote”

a collection of strategies and efforts aimed at increasing voter turnout during elections

growth of PACs

with the rise of Super PACs after the 2010 Citizens United v. FEC decision, the landscape of political funding changed significantly, enabling more spending on independent expenditures

electioneering

efforts by political groups or individuals to persuade voters to support or oppose specific candidates, political parties, or ballot issues in an upcoming election

“free-rider problem”

the difficulty interest groups face when potential members choose not to join or contribute because they can still enjoy the group's collective benefits (public goods) without paying costs

interest groups and information

interest groups are formal associations that influence public policy by providing specialized information, technical expertise, and constituent feedback to policymakers, acting as a link between the public and government

litigation (suing)

the formal process of resolving legal disputes through the court system, spanning from filing a complaint to trial and potential appeals

lobbying - when/how it happens

lobbying occurs continuously at all levels of government—federal, state, and local—whenever legislation, regulations, or policies are being considered, drafted, or amended

Occupy Wall Street

a left-wing populist and progressive movement against economic inequality, capitalism, corporate greed, big finance, and the influence of money in politics

Olson’s Law of Large Groups

the larger a group, the less likely it is to act collectively to further its common interest

PAC donations - who gets them?

federal candidates running for office, particularly incumbents, to support their campaigns

pluralism and interest groups

a political theory stating that power in democracies is dispersed among numerous, competing, and independent interest groups rather than concentrated in a single elite

public interest groups vs. special interest groups

special interest groups advocate for narrow benefits—like corporate profits or specific regulations—for their members; public interest groups advocate for broad, collective benefits, such as environmental protection or public safety, that serve society at large

the “revolving door”

the movement of personnel between roles as legislators/regulators (public sector) and members of industries affected by11 regulations (private sector), such as lobbying or consulting

agenda-setting function

posits that the news media influences public perception by determining which issues are important