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Nicholas II

The final emperor of Russia (ruled 1894–1917) whose poor leadership, military failures, and resistance to reform contributed to the fall of the monarchy during the Russian Revolution.

Russo-Japanese War

A war between Russia and Japan over control of Korea and Manchuria; Japan’s victory weakened Russia and fueled unrest at home.

February Revolution

The 1917 uprising in Petrograd that forced the tsar to abdicate and led to the creation of a temporary government.

Vladimir Lenin

Leader of the Bolsheviks who headed the October Revolution and became the first leader of Soviet Russia, promoting communist rule.

Leon Trotsky

A key Bolshevik leader and founder of the Red Army who helped secure victory in the Russian Civil War.

October Revolution

The Bolshevik takeover of the Russian government in late 1917 that established communist control.

Russian Civil War

A war between the Bolshevik Red Army and anti-communist forces after the revolution; it ended with Bolshevik victory.

Whites (Mensheviks) vs. Reds (Bolsheviks)

The Whites were anti-communist forces (including monarchists and some Mensheviks), while the Reds were Bolsheviks who supported Lenin and communist rule.

New Economic Policy (NEP)

An economic program introduced by Lenin in 1921 that allowed some private business and small-scale capitalism to rebuild the economy after the civil war.

Joseph Stalin

Leader of the Soviet Union after Lenin’s death who established a dictatorship, expanded industry, and used purges and fear to maintain power.

Five-Year Plans

Stalin’s government programs aimed at rapidly industrializing the Soviet Union through strict economic goals set every five years.

Collectivization

Stalin’s policy of forcing farmers to give up private land and join large, state-controlled farms to increase agricultural production.

Totalitarianism

A political system in which the government has total control over public and private life, often led by a single dictator and using propaganda and terror.

Cult of personality

When a leader uses propaganda and media to create an idealized, heroic image of themselves to gain loyalty and control.

Komintern (Communist International)

An international organization founded by Lenin in 1919 to promote and support communist revolutions around the world.