APES CH 9, 10, 11 NOTES

Biophilia

E.O. Wilson’s term for the inherent human affinity and emotional connection to the natural world

Wild species importance

Wild species are important for economic, medical, scientific, ecological, aesthetic, recreational, and ethical reasons

Food crops from wild plants

90% of today’s food crops were domesticated from wild tropical plants

Plant-based medicine

80% of the world’s population relies on plants or plant extracts for medicine

Extinction

Extinction is a natural process where a species disappears completely from Earth

Percent of species extinct

99% of all species that have ever existed are now extinct due to background and mass extinctions

Background rate of extinction

The small number of species that become extinct naturally; also called the natural rate of extinction

Mass extinction

An abrupt rise in extinction rates above the background level, often followed by adaptive radiations

Adaptive radiation

Rapid increase in the diversity of life forms as species evolve to fill newly available ecological niches after a mass extinction

Natural background comparison

If there are about 100 million species, the natural background extinction rate would be about 30 species per year

Human-caused extinction crisis

The current extinction crisis is the first caused by a single species (humans) and is happening over decades instead of thousands to millions of years

Evolutionary centers

Biologically diverse environments that historically served as centers for the recovery of biodiversity after mass extinctions

Ecological extinction

Occurs when a species becomes so rare that it can no longer perform its ecological roles where it exists

Biological extinction

Occurs when a species is no longer found anywhere on Earth

Local extinction

Occurs when a species disappears from an area where it once lived but still exists elsewhere in the world

Endangered species

A species with so few individuals remaining that it could soon become extinct across all or most of its natural range

Threatened species

A species that is still abundant in its natural range but is declining in numbers and likely to become endangered

Ecosystem approach

A conservation strategy that aims to preserve balanced populations of species in their native habitats, establish protected areas, and reduce nonnative species

Species approach

Protecting endangered species by identifying them, giving them legal protection, preserving habitats, and propagating and reintroducing them

Maximum sustainable yield

The wildlife management goal of harvesting the largest number of individuals possible without reducing the population long-term

IUCN

The International Union for Conservation of Nature, the world’s leading authority on species conservation

IUCN Red List

The global database maintained by the IUCN that provides the most comprehensive assessment of species conservation status

CITES

The 1975 Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species that regulates international trade of threatened wildlife and wildlife products

• Almost 38,700 species are listed and cannot be traded internationally as live specimens or wildlife products because they are endangered or threatened

Endangered Species Act

A major U.S. environmental law that protects endangered and threatened species and their habitats

• The National Marine Fisheries Service and the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service identify and list endangered and threatened species

• Major amendments occurred in 1978, 1982, 1988, and 2004

• The 2004 amendment reduced effectiveness by exempting the Department of Defense from some critical habitat designations

• Enforcement and use of the Endangered Species Act can change significantly depending on U.S. policymakers

Bald Eagle example

Bald Eagle (Haliaeetus leucocephalus) recovered enough to be removed from the endangered species list in 2007

Whooping Crane example

Whooping Crane (Grus americana) population dropped to a low of 54 individuals

Red Wolf example

Red Wolf (Canis rufus) population dropped to a low of 17 individuals

California Condor example

California Condor (Gymnogyps californianus) is the most expensive species conservation project in U.S. history

Florida Manatee example

Florida Manatee (Trichechus manatus latirostris) was recently moved from the endangered list to the threatened list

Wildlife management definition

The manipulation of wildlife populations and their habitats for both their welfare and human benefit

Flyways

North–south migration routes along which migratory birds must be managed

Succession management

Wildlife managers can control ecological succession to encourage plant species that provide preferred food and cover for certain animals

Invasive species

Species introduced into ecosystems by humans that spread rapidly and often harm native species

• also called alien

Introduced species

Species that humans deliberately or accidentally move into ecosystems where they did not previously exist

Nonnative species

Species that are not naturally found in a particular ecosystem

Traits of invasive species

Often generalist and r-selected species that reproduce quickly and outcompete native organisms

Examples of invasive species

Zebra mussel, kudzu vine, lionfish, and Burmese python

HIPPCO

Acronym describing the six main threats to biodiversity

Habitat loss/degradation

H in HIPPCO

Invasive species

I in HIPPCO

Human population growth

P in HIPPCO (first)

Pollution

P in HIPPCO (second)

Climate change

C in HIPPCO

Overexploitation

O in HIPPCO

Ecosystem services

Natural services that support life on Earth and are essential to human quality of life and the functioning of the world’s economies

Provisioning ecosystem services

Ecosystem services that provide food, water, medicine, and raw materials

Regulating ecosystem services

Ecosystem services that regulate natural processes such as pollination, water purification, and pest control

Supporting ecosystem services

Ecosystem services that provide species habitats and maintain genetic diversity

Cultural ecosystem services

Ecosystem services that provide recreation, intellectual development, and tourism

Public lands in the United States

42% of U.S. lands are set aside for public use, enjoyment, and wildlife

• 73% of U.S. public lands are located in Alaska

Multiple-use lands

Lands such as those in the National Forest System and National Resource Lands that are managed for a variety of uses simultaneously

Sustainable yield principle

Renewable resources should not be harvested faster than they are naturally replenished

Multiple-use principle

Land should be managed for a variety of uses at the same time such as recreation, logging, grazing, and wildlife habitat

Types of forests

Forests are generally classified into tropical, temperate, and polar forests based on climate

Old-growth forests

Uncut forests or regenerated forests that have not been seriously disturbed for several hundred years

Second-growth forests

Forests that regrow after being cut or disturbed through secondary ecological succession

Economic importance of forests

Forests provide lumber for housing, pulp for paper, biomass for fuel, medicines, and many other products

Heating use of timber

Worldwide, about 55% of the timber cut each year is used for heating and cooking

U.S. wood imports

The United States is the world’s largest per capita importer of wood products

China wood imports

China is the largest overall importer of wood products

Forest watersheds

Forests filter and regulate the flow of water from mountain areas to croplands and cities

Forest influence on climate

Forests influence climate because 50–80% of atmospheric water vapor comes from trees through transpiration and evaporation

Forests and carbon cycle

Forests play a critical role in the carbon cycle by absorbing about 90% of atmospheric carbon dioxide

Forest biodiversity

Forests provide more habitats for wildlife species than any other terrestrial biome

Tropical deforestation rate

About 46,000 square miles of tropical forest are lost or degraded each year

Primary causes of tropical deforestation

Population growth, poverty, and government policies

Secondary causes of tropical deforestation

Roads, logging, farming, ranching, flooding from dams, mining, and oil drilling

Forest management systems

The two main systems are even-aged management and uneven-aged management

Even-aged management

Trees are planted and grown at the same age and size, often using monocultures, and harvested at the same time

Uneven-aged management

A mix of tree species and ages are planted and maintained for multiple uses and greater biodiversity

Selective cutting

Harvesting method where intermediate or mature trees are removed individually or in small groups

High grading

The selective cutting of the most valuable trees in a forest

Shelterwood cutting

Removing mature trees in two or three stages over about 10 years to allow new trees to grow

Seed-tree cutting

Harvesting nearly all trees in an area but leaving a few seed-producing trees to regenerate the forest

Clear-cutting

Removing all trees in an area in a single cutting for economic efficiency

Strip cutting

A type of clear-cutting where trees are cut in narrow strips along the land contour to allow natural regeneration

Whole-tree harvesting

Cutting trees at ground level or uprooting entire trees to be chipped for pulpwood or fuelwood

Role of fire in forests

Natural fires are an important part of the ecological cycle in some forest ecosystems

Surface fires

Fires that burn undergrowth and leaf litter along the forest floor

Crown fires

Fires that burn entire trees and spread from treetop to treetop

Fire prevention

Actions taken to prevent forest fires before they start

Prescribed burning

Controlled ground fires set intentionally to reduce buildup of flammable materials

Presuppression

Early detection and control efforts to prevent small fires from spreading

Suppression

Fighting fires after they have started

Sustainable forestry

Forest management practices designed to maintain forest resources and ecosystem services long-term

Reduce harvest of pulpwood

Recycling more paper reduces the need to cut trees for pulpwood

Forest fragmentation

Breaking large forest areas into smaller pieces, which sustainable forestry aims to minimize

Grasslands

The ecosystem most widely used and altered by humans after forests

Soil formation in grasslands

Grasslands contribute to the formation of fertile soil

Erosion control in grasslands

Grasslands help reduce soil erosion

Nutrient cycling in grasslands

Grasslands help recycle nutrients through plant and soil processes

CO2 storage in grasslands

Grasslands store atmospheric carbon dioxide

Grassland biodiversity

Grasslands help maintain biodiversity

Rangelands

Unfenced grasslands used for grazing animals

Browsing animals

Animals that feed on shrubs and woody plants instead of grasses

Overgrazing

Occurs when too many animals graze too long and exceed the carrying capacity of the land

Soil compaction

A result of overgrazing where soil becomes packed down, reducing water infiltration and plant growth

Selective

Shelterwood

Seed tree

Strip

Clear

Whole tree

Tree harvesting methods best to worst

Ecosystem approach

Encourages the protection of habitats and ecosystem services through a four-point plan.

1. Map global ecosystems and create an inventory of the species within and ecosystem services provided

2. Protect the most endangered ecosystems and species

3. Restore degraded ecosystems

4. Encourage biodiversity-friendly development

Human impacts on marine species

Many marine species are disappearing due to overfishing, pollution, and habitat destruction and degradation