Psych Unit 3 AOS 2

classical conditioning model response

• Before conditioning: the neutral stimulus (NS) was the (insert neutral stimulus here), which produced no relevant response. 

• The unconditioned stimulus (UCS) was the (insert unconditioned stimulus here), which produced an unconditioned response (UCR) of (insert unconditioned response here).

• During conditioning: the (insert neutral stimulus here) (NS) was repeatedly paired with the (insert unconditioned stimulus here) (UCS). The (insert neutral stimulus here) was presented half a second before the (insert unconditioned stimulus here) (UCS). This produced the UCR of (insert UCR here- link to it being in response to the UCS)

• After conditioning: the once neutral stimulus is now the conditioned stimulus (insert conditioned stimulus here), which produces a conditioned response of (insert conditioned response here), without the presence of the UCS(insert unconditioned rstimulus here)

Neutral stimulus

A stimulus that does not initially elicit a response

Unconditioned stimulus

A stimulus that elicits a reflexive response

unconditioned response

A natural (unlearned/reflex) behaviour to a given stimulus 

Conditioned stimulus

A stimulus that elicits a response due to being paired with an unconditioned stimulus

Conditioned response

A response caused by the conditioned stimulus

Classical conditioning definition

A type of learning in which a neutral stimulus is repeatedly paired with an unconditioned stimulus until it produces a conditioned response.

The Ideal Interval between a neutral and unconditional stimulus in classical conditioning

• Ideally, the interval should be no more than 0.5 seconds.

• The NS (e.g., a bell) must act as a signal that the UCS (e.g., food) is about to arrive.

Classical conditioning- role of the learner

Passive- the learner does not need to actively engage and learning occurs throigh association

Classical conditioning- timing of stimulus

The stimulus occurs ½ second before the response

• stimulus —> response

Classical conditioning- nature of response

Involuntary and automatic (reflexive)

Antecedent

• Also known as ‘discriminative stimulus’.

• Anything in the learner’s environment that triggers a response.

Behaviour

The learner’s voluntary response to the antecedent

Consequence

The event in the learner’s environment that follows the response, making the behaviour more or less likely to be repeated.

• Positive or negative

• Reinforcement or punishment

Reinforcement

• Reinforcement can be thought of as a rewarding consequence for behaviour.

• Therefore, it increases the likelihood of the behaviour.

Positive reinforcement

• The addition of a desirable consequence

• For example, a child getting a lolly for completing homework

• Increases the likelihood of the behaviour.

Negative reinforcement

• The removal of an unpleasant stimulus 

• For example, a child does not have to do chores for completing homework

• Increases the likelihood of the behaviour.

Punishment

• Punishment is thought of as an undesirable consequence for behaviour.

• Therefore it decreases the likelihood of the behaviour.

Positive punishment

• The addition of an unwanted stimulus. 

• For example, getting a detention

• decreases the likelihood of the behaviour.

Negative punishment (response cost)

• The removal of a desirable stimulus.

• For example, a teacher confiscates your phone when you are using it in class

• decreases the likelihood of the behaviour.

Operant conditioning

A type of learning in which behaviour is strengthened or weakened depending on the consequences that follow it.

Effectiveness of punishment & reinforcement

• Order of presentation: It must be presented AFTER the desired response, and never before.

• The consequence (reinforcement / punishment) always follows the response.

• Timing: Reinforcement and punishment are most effective when they occur IMMEDIATELY after the response has occurred.

• Appropriateness: Reinforcement must provide a satisfying consequence and punishment must provide an unpleasant consequence.

Example response operant conditoning process

• The antecedent is Penny’s phone ringing, prompting her behaviour of taking the call in the hall. The consequence she receives is a chocolate.

• This is positive reinforcement as the addition of the desirable stimulus (chocolate) increases the likelihood of her repeating the behaviour of taking the call outside when her phone rings again.

Similarities between classical and operant conditioning

• Both are Behaviourist models that explain learning in 3 phases.

• In both classical and operant conditioning there is an acquisition process whereby a response is conditioned (or learned). 

• Both types of conditioning (learning) are achieved as a result of the repeated association of two events (in the environment) that follow each other closely in time.

Differences between classical and operant conditioning

• Operant conditioning consequences are vital for learning whereas in Classical Conditioning there are no environmental consequences. 

• In classical conditioning, the association of two stimuli, the NS and UCS, provides the basis of learning,

• whereas in operant conditioning, behaviour is associated with consequences that follow it. 

Why is reinforcement considered a better strategy for modifying behaviour than punishment?

• Although punishment may temporarily decrease the occurrence of unwanted responses or behaviour, it does not promote more desirable or appropriate behaviour in its place. 

• Instead, reinforcement strengthens desirable behaviours and promotes the learning of alternative behaviours to punishable behaviours

Operant conditioning- role of the learner

Active- the learner actively performs behaviours and learns from consequences.

Operant conditioning- timing of stimulus

The consequence occurs after the behaviour

behaviour —> consequence

Operant conditioning- nature of response

Voluntary

What is Observational learning?

A type of learning that occurs through observing the behaviour of a model and the consequences of that behaviour.

5 key processes necessary in observational learning

Attention

Retention

Reproduction

Motivation

Reinforcement

ARRMR

Attention

• The learner must actively focus on the actions of the model, as well as the consequences of their actions. 

• If they are not paying attention, they cannot retain the information required to reproduce the behaviour. 

What influences our likelihood to imitate someone?

• Model is familiar to us through previous observations

• Similar features to ourselves (relatable) eg: age, gender

• The model is looked up to by the learner

Retention

In the retention stage, the learner stores the information they have observed as a mental representation (memory).

Reproduction

The learner needs to have both the mental and physical capabilities required to reproduce the observed behaviour. 

Motivation

The learner must want to or have a desire to imitate the behaviour. 

This can be intrinsic or extrinsic.

• Intrinsic motivation: occurs from within an individual (eg. a swimmer wanting to beat the world record for 100m

• Extrinsic motivation: occurs from factors external to the individual (eg. the desire to be praised from your swim coach)

Reinforcement

• Once the learner has performed the behaviour, receiving the consequence of reinforcement increases the likelihood that the learner will repeat the behaviour. 

• This can also occur vicariously, where the learner is reinforced indirectly through seeing/hearing the consequence of another person’s behaviour.  

Observational learning model response (5marks)

With reference to the five stages of observational learning, explain how An could successfully learn how to use chopsticks by watching her dad use chopsticks. 

Attention: She actively focuses on how her dad uses chopsticks, such as watching how he holds them.

Retention: An forms a mental representation of how her dad uses chopsticks.

Reproduction: An has the physical and mental capabilities to replicate her dad’s behaviour, such as having adequate motor skills in her hands.

Motivation: An needs to have the desire to learn how to use chopsticks so that she can receive praise from her father.

Reinforcement: An was positively reinforced with the addition of praise as a pleasant stimulus, increasing the likelihood of using chopsticks again in the future.

Observational learning- role of the learner

Active- the learner must pay attention, remember, and reproduce the behaviour

Observational learning- timing of stimulus

The learner observes a model before performing the behaviour

• Observation—> imitation

Observational learning-nature of response

Voluntary

Learning as a System of Knowledge (ATSI)

Knowledge and skills being based on interconnected and spiritual understanding, and in turn inform survival and contribute to a strong sense of identity.

• different types of knowledge are learned together, not separately

• understanding comes from seeing the relationships between ideas

• Holistic in nature

What are concepts connected through in a system of knowledge?

• story

• symbols

• place

• experience

The role of the learner in a system of  knowledge

The learner is:

• an active participant within the holistic system

• positioned within relationships, culture and Country

• learning through observation, participation and experience

• Learns through multiple senses and ‘modes’

They gradually become a holder and transmitter of knowledge - learner AND teacher.

What does multimodal learning mean?

(use this for ways of knowing questions)

Learning occurs through a complex and sophisticated system using multiple modes at once, including:

• storytelling and song

• art and symbols

• movement and dance

• observation and participation

• spiritual and social dimensions 

Example of multimodal learning & how it shows

During storytelling:

• the story is spoken or sung

• actions or dance are performed

• symbols or body paint may be used

This shows multimodal learning because knowledge is communicated through multiple forms simultaneously.

What are the 8 ways of learning?

• Story-sharing:

  • Learning by listening and sharing stories and songs of the past, present and future.

• Learning maps:

  • Involves creating images or visuals to map pathways or processes

• Non-verbal

  • Uses kinesthetic techniques, e.g. dance, gestures, facial expressions

• Symbols and images

  • Found in art and drawings

• Non-linear

  • Viewing learning through different perspectives

• Land links

  • Linked to nature, land and country

• Community links

  • Learner brings in local knowledge and shares with wider community

• Deconstruct/reconstruct

  • Starting with the big picture and then breaking it down into components

Kinship in Learning

Kinship is a holistic system of relationships and responsibilities that connects individuals through:

• family

• community

• cultural roles

It determines:

• roles and responsibilities

• how knowledge is shared

• who holds and transmits knowledge

The role of the learner in kinship

• a learner who gains knowledge through observation, participation and experience

• a teacher, who will eventually pass knowledge on

• a custodian of future knowledge, responsible for maintaining and transmitting knowledge across generations

What does learning being patterned on Country mean?

Knowledge is organised and learned through connection to specific places, where the land holds meaning and information

What is Country?

Country refers to a holistic connection to land, environment and spirituality, including:

• land, waterways and sky

• plants and animals

• ancestors and cultural history

Learning being patterned on Country example & how it shows this

A learner walks through bushland and is taught:

• which plants are safe to eat

• when animals appear

• the meaning of a sacred site

• responsibility to care for the land

This shows learning patterned on Country because knowledge is:

• embedded in place

• connected to cultural and spiritual meaning

• learned through experience and responsibility

How is learning embedded in relationships?

knowledge exists through connections between people, Country, culture and spirituality - relies on a bi-directional relationship between teacher and learner and kinship

These include relationships between:

• people

• Country

• concepts (knowledge systems)

• ancestors and spirituality 

Encoding

Conversion of information into a usable form so that it can be neurologically represented and stored in memory

Storage

retention of the encoded information over time

Retrieval

Recovery of stored information and bringing it into conscious awareness for use when needed.

• This occurs when info from long-term memory is brought into short-term memory

3 stores of the Atkinson-Shiffrin multi-store model

1. sensory memory

2. short term memory

3. long term memory

Atkinson-Shiffrin multi-store model of memory diagram

Sensory memory: role

• To retain information which has been detected by the senses in its raw sensory form

• At this point, all incoming sensory information is a replica of what is in your environment- encoding has not yet taken place.

Sensory memory: Capacity

Vast, potentially unlimited

Sensory memory: duration

0.2 - 4 seconds

Iconic memory

visual information

capacity: 0.2-0.4 seconds

Echoic memory

auditory information

capacity: 3-4 seconds

How is info from sensory memory transferred to short term memory?

• Raw information from the environment is detected by the senses and enters the sensory memory store.

• If this information has been attended to, then it is converted into a usable form and transferred to short-term memory for conscious processing

Short-term memory (STM)- function

• Receives information from sensory memory and transfers information to and from long-term memory.

• Maintains information in conscious awareness for manipulation and use.

Short-term memory (STM)- capacity

7 plus or minus 2 items

7±2

(5-9 items)

Short-term memory (STM)- duration

18 - 30 seconds

How is info from short-term memory transferred to long-term memory?

• In the short-term memory, the information is actively manipulated.

• This helps to encode the information from short-term memory into long-term memory.

Long-term memory (LTM)- function

to store information which can be retrieved for future use

Long-term memory (LTM)- capacity

vast, potentially unlimited

Long-term memory (LTM)- duration

relatively permanent 

Explanatory power of Atkinson-Shiffrin: strengths

• The model distinguishes between the different stores involved in memory.

• The model outlines that each memory store has a different capacity and duration.

• The model provides a good understanding of the structure and process of memory.
  

Explanatory power of Atkinson-Shiffrin: weaknesses

• The Atkinson-Shiffrin multi-store model of memory may be considered to be oversimplified.

• Other psychologists suggest that short-term memory is more complex and involves different components than the model suggests.

• The model ignores factors, such as motivation and strategy, which can facilitate learning and assist in encoding information from STM to LTM.