1.6: Relativism, Wittgenstein II & Kuhn

Constructivism

Facts depend on the theories we use to interpret the world; changing theories changes what we consider facts.

Relativism

Truth depends on the framework or group interpreting reality; what is true varies across groups and periods.

Constructivism and Relativism

Constructivism implies relativism and vice versa; both link to Wittgenstein II’s philosophy of language.

Wittgenstein II

Meaning depends on use, not reference; “meaning is use.”

Language Games

Words gain meaning from their use within specific contexts or “forms of life.”

Private Language Argument

A private language understood by only one person is impossible; meaning requires shared rules.

Empiricist Argument for Private Language

Meaning depends on reference → psychological terms refer to inner experiences → only I know meaning. Wittgenstein rejects this.

Rule-Following

Rules like grammar and logic must be publicly accessible; meaning requires social norms.

Conclusion Wittgenstein II

A private language cannot exist; language games involve words and context; influenced later relativists like Kuhn.

Kuhn’s Approach

Describes how science develops, not how it should; offers a descriptive model of scientific change.

Paradigm

Accepted framework of theories, methods, and assumptions guiding scientific work; similar to Wittgenstein’s language games.

Prescientific Period

No structured science or shared system of thought.

Normal Science

Paradigm is accepted; scientists solve puzzles within it; anomalies are small; activity is mostly conservative.

Abnormal Science (Crisis)

Growing anomalies cause doubt; problems may be solved (paradigm continues) or persist (scientific revolution begins).

Scientific Revolution

A new paradigm replaces the old one; transition is abrupt; worldviews are incommensurable.

Incommensurability

Paradigms cannot be compared using neutral criteria; concepts and meanings differ; scientists live in different conceptual worlds.

Gestalt Switch

Paradigm change resembles a perceptual switch; scientists see a new world, not reinterpret old data.

Kuhn vs Popper

Popper: knowledge grows via falsification; Kuhn: growth occurs only within paradigms, not across revolutions.

No Objective Progress

New paradigms are not better, only different; knowledge is relative to the paradigm.

Demarcation Criterion Revisited

Science has an accepted paradigm; pseudo-sciences lack a shared framework.

Maturity of Psychology (Warren)

Psychology lacks a single accepted paradigm.

Conclusion Kuhn

Kuhn abandoned universal demarcation; science is cyclical (normal → crisis → revolution); paradigm shifts = conceptual change; meaning and truth are paradigm-dependent.

Singer Escalator Effect

Rational reflection on morality drives moral progress

Hacking Looping Effects

Human science theories influence behavior of study subjects

Maturity of Psychology (Palermo)

Psychology is a mature science.