evolutionary exam 2

pos/neg short term mating

Pos

• Pleasure

• Exploration

• No pressure

• Mate seeking

Neg

• Diseases

• Pregnancy 

• Risky 

• Social stigma

sociosexuality

• Willingness to engage in sexual relations in the absence of serious relationship

• Higher ends - unrestricted; lower ends - restricted

• snap study

  • Men and women who were unrestricted more likely to send a snap naked

  • Difference between restricted and unrestricted individuals 

mate switching

• partner might stop being a good partner (not providing resources, being abusive, etc.)

• Women already in relationships may benefit from 

  • Finding another mate and trade them (switch)

  • Cheating on their partner to expel current mate (expulsion)

• Benefits of Mate Switching

  • Indirect

    • Can get indirect benefits by acquiring good genes 

      • MHC - Major histocompatibility complex; MHC similarity correlates with lower fertility or reproductive failure —> find a mate that differs

    • Genes could be superior compared to a long term partner 

      • Hypothesis known as a the sexy son hypothesis 

        • might give offspring better chances for survival/reproduction

  • Direct 

    • New mate 

    • New resources 

    • New in group 

back burner relationships

• Desired prospective romantic/sexual partners that people communicate with to establish a future romantic or sexual relationship 

• Singles compared to in relationship individuals do not differ in the number of back burners 

  • Singles - Last chance; not wanting to die alone

mate choice copying

• Mate Choice Copying - Perceived interest of other women indicates a man possesses these desirable qualities 

• Many of the qualities women desire in partners are unobservable (good parent, financial prospects, etc) 

STM & ovulation

• Ovulation - More sex occurs 2 days before, 2 days after 

• Less estradiol - More sexual behavior

• Progesterone - Nesting behaviors 

  • Less sexual activity 

• stronger preference for uncommitted sexual relationships when they’re ovulating compared to when they’re not

• Dual mating strategy - Ovulatory shifts in mating psychology 

  • Heterosexual women show stronger preferences for uncommitted sexual relationships with men displaying putative cues of reproductive fitness (ex - masculinized faces) during follicular phase, and during luteal phase they prefer men w/ feminized faces during luteal

STM & Ovulation: CAD v DADs

• Cads - Follicular (estrogen)

• Luteal - Dads (progesterone)

• Def - In the dual mating hypothesis, people say that fluctuations in hormones correlate in behavioral fluctuations 

  • More estrogen = more sex drive 

  • Luteal - more progesterone; sex drive decreases bc body assumes pregnancy 

  • Women have changes in mating preferences 

    • CAD - Follicular; Bad boy (high testosterone [good genes] 

    • DAD - Luteal; Investment behaviors 

  • This hypothesis is stronger for women dating dads, since they already have the investment

    • Extrapair paternity supports hypothesis - population of children being raised by a father not genetically related to them (48% in non traditional societies) 

      • Ties in since a dad is more likely to invest if they are sure the child is theirs 

      • Dad and woman in relationship

        • Depending on ovulation status she may cheat on the dad with a cad (short term) and she says it’s the cad’s kid

  • Evolutionary - mate with someone for good genes, and stick with them for investment

STM benefits/costs men

• benefits

  • largely physiological since they do not have to carry children; less investment

• Disease, STDS, offspring dies more easily without investment, womanizer, more deception, different commitment levels, violence due to jealous husbands (intrasexual comp), retaliatory affairs by wives → divorce potential (more proximate) 

• Ache tribe offspring

  •  Offspring lived longer (fitness) when they had a father compared to when they didn’t

high testosterone markers

• waist to chest ratio, more hair, greater immune function

• immuno handicap hypothesis - circulating testosterone is harsh on the body

• Less healthy males must suppress testosterone production (already weak immune systems); more healthy males—> more testosterone more masculine faces

variety seeking

• Desire for sexual variety 

  • Motivated to be interested in a variety of mates

  • Do not let time between mates develop

• Schmitt 2003 

  • When asked how many partners they want the rest of the life and number of partners within next few years 

    • Women - level at 5; Men - 20

  • Solves problem of variety

• Desire for Novelty 

  • Coolidge Effect

    • Rats - Physiological mechanism that shortens amount of time it takes to ejaculate between sexual encounters 

      • New partners - doesn’t take as long

    • Humans - Participants tasked with rating two different ppl shown multiple times

      • Study 1 - men more likely to select a variety of mates when given the opportunity 

      • Men find the second time they look at the same woman less attractive (picture switching study)

• Men desire more sexual variety than women 

• Time elapsed - How likely would you have sex with someone you knew for (1 day…..)

fertility & desire

• Follicular/luteal phase

• Men exposed to woman ovulating → more mating motivation 

• Men perceived women’s sexual arousal 

• High levels of female fertility were associated with greater desire for men to engage in risky behaviors 

commitment (affective shift)

• Affective shift hypothesis - some experience a decline in sexual attraction to their mate after having sex 

• May be to avoid commitment 

• Man - tends to increase; women, tends to decrease

FWB motivations

• Men - more likely to have fwb

  • Motivator for sex

  • Ideal outcome - continual sexual contact

  • Hope for relationship not to change

• Women

  • Ideal - future relationships

  • Motivator - emotional connection 

  • Hope for relationships to either grow into romance or just be friends 

• Both equal in being committed to being friends rather than sex

men/women similarities - desired qualities

• 1. Kind/understanding.

• 2.  Intelligent

• 3. exciting personality

• 4. Healthy

• 5. attractive (men), easygoing (women)

• men similar in choosiness comp to women

mating evolutionary patterns (??)

• Similar adaptive problems → Similar psychology; Different adaptive problems → different psychology

• Mate pref important since different trait ans behaviors increase/decrease one’s fitness 

• Evolution cares about traits being passed on, not preferences 

parental investment theory

• sex that invests more in its offspring will be more selective when choosing a mate; less investing → interasexual competition to access mates

  • more biologically costly for females 

• Female Investment - 9 month gestation, 4 years lactation 

• Male Investment - Sperm is cheap, not much effort

• In species where offspring is altricial (cannot fend for themselves after birth) → males invest more compared to precocial species

  • If this wasn’t the case, reproductive success would suffer

• Nuptial Gift - Male parental investment 

• Males who care for more offspring tend to be very choosy 

  • Males invest substantial resources in offspring (time, protection, provisions, etc.); paternal influence increases male fitness

  • fathers invest heavily —> children live longer

• Women put in a more work than men → choosy 

• Male preferences as adaptive solutions 

  • Certain traits & behaviors selected by natural selection if they persistently increase fitness of females 

sexual strategies theory

• Strategies - evolved solutions to adaptive problems inherent in mating 

  • Both men & women develop diff strategies; dependent on context

• Women must identify and correctly evaluate cues that signal whether a man possesses a particular availability of an attribute; Some men may deceive women 

  • Man is strong → signifies protection, health (access to food)

  • Smell signals good genes

  • How someone speaks indicates health  

• Errors are inevitable; women must integrate knowledge about potential mates based on variability of attributes

  • Ability/willingness to invest/commit

  • Ability to offer physical protection 

• Strategies towards solving for deception, paternal uncertainty

International Study of Mate Preferences

• Resources and finances most desirable trait for women 

  • Indirect - Physical safety, reputation, status, education, ambition

  • Direct - Food, money

  • Status 

  • Age - 3.5 years older  

    • Women like older men, but not too old 

      • access to resources, hunting skills, etc.

  • Men prioritize women’s higher education status less; women prefer men w higher ed/affluent

• Speed dating

  • Women prefer men that were more affluent and had higher education 

• Athletic skill, strength, and height (potential mate an offer protection)

  • Indicates physical formidability (protection)

  • Resource acquisition advantage in the past and now

• Investment and good genes 

  • Good gene traits in men are perceived as attractive

  • Preferences such as symmetry and masculinity indicate good health which means good genes

  • Mating with someone with infections could pass bad genes to spouse/offspring

• Symmetry and masculinity 

  • Fluctuating asymmetry - marker of health 

    • We prefer symmetries (close to perfect), but not if something is 100% perfect

  • Women prefer symmetry as an adaption 

• Testosterone and masculinity 

  • T markers - Immunocompetence handicap hypothesis 

    • T suppresses immune system 

    • Only men with extremely efficient immune systems (good genes) can afford to suppress their immune systems & remain healthy 

social theories

• all proximate

• Social Role

  Socialization

  Social Learning

• Ex - Is beauty in the eye of the beholder (is attractiveness subjective)

  • Evolved psychological mechanism & cues to fertility

    • immuno handicap hypothesis - circulating testosterone is harsh on the body 

    • We have evolved psychological mechanisms that signal who might be a good mate

    • women cues - full lips, clear skin, long hair, feminine voice

      • contrary - as women age facial features

        less feminine; age = less estrogen, less youth, more disease w age

    • women cues - clear skin

      • contrary - sores, ulcers, and skin

        eruptions are unattractive in erotic contact

• Proximate explains how there are sex differences and what they are

  • Incorporate the why (ultimate)

• Biology and sexual strategies led to reproduction fast which led to norms, culture, and society 

Men’s Long-Term Mating 

• Women’s fertility and ovulation is concealed 

• Reproductive value - Number of children one can theoretically have in the future 

  • Men’s higher than woman due to less costs/cheap sperm

  • Become less fertile with age 

    • Reproductive value decreases as well 

• Fertility of reproductive value ←→ standards of attractiveness 

(lips, clear skin, hair, symmetry [these bounce between])

There's nothing inherently attractive about these things but they provide cues for women’s fertility IRV (?) which leads men to value them 

• Across cultures men place greater value preference for physical appearance 

youth

• #1 Predictor

• Age double standard - Older women judged as less attractive than older men due to the link that fertility isn’t high anymore 

• Perception plays a huge role; men don’t know how old women are due to skin care, less children, cosmetics/cosmetic surgery

• Women’s appearance doesn’t match biological age 

• Age hints at ability to reproduce (younger = more attractive)

features

• Hair length, skin quality, lumbar curvature, facial symmetry, and attractiveness 

• Waist to hip ratio 

  • ~.7 (culturally consistent)

  • Related to birthing, attractiveness, health 

  • Found attractive regardless of BMI 

  • Low WHR is attractive → high RV high fertility, more successful with IVF, more estrogen, less health risks, 

  • Low WHR women have children with higher cognitive test scores 

    • Is beauty in the eye of the beholder?

  • In harsh ecologies, heavier women are perceived to be more attractive

    • Stigma of heavy women is less if they have a waist hip ratio

is beauty in eye of the beholder

• Evolves psychological mechanism & cues to fertility

  • immuno handicap hypothesis - circulating testosterone is harsh on the body 

  • We have evolved psychological mechanisms that signal who might be a good mate

• To an extent; Proximate reasons are societal trends that push ultimate reasons forward 

  • Ex - tattoos ripping ur skin back then means you have a good immune system

sex

• 20-30 - 2x a week

• 40-50 - 1x a week 

• Magic number is once a week 

  • Those who have it once a week are just as happy as 5x a week 

• keeps passion alive

  • More orgasms 

  • More oral sex

  • Different sexual acts

  • More communications 

  • Set mood/ date nights 

  • Longer sexual acts

  • Use self help books 

  • Ask partner about needs and more positive attitudes 

• Mate Retention Tactics - ensuring your partner stays 

• Sexual afterglow study

  • Couples that engage in sexual acts tend to report an afterglow effect for up to 48 hours 

  • Higher marital satisfaction; predicts monthly marital satisfaction 

  • Present even if there are no orgasms; mechanisms could be closeness 

  • When sex is not enjoyable, they experience in the opposite 

cooperation and conflict

• In order to reproduce, men and women must cooperate 

• If you do not want to mate with a certain person/does not have qualities → conflict arises 

• Sexual Conflict - between the evolutionary interests of individuals of the two sexes

  • occur when genetic interests of a male and a female diverge

  • ex - man wants to have sex after first date, woman doesn’t

rejection (sex)

• Some evidence suggests that there are changes when couples reject one another 

  • When asked why do you and your partner not have sex 

    • Men - Problem is dyadic (not in the mood)

    • Women - Problem is external (kids, work stress)

  • When looking at rejecting a partner, being positive was good for the couple

getting into a relationship and everyone wants you

• Reproductive Priming Effect - Entering into a new relationship increases jealousy from competitors

• Entering into a new relationship without discernible behavioral changes can trigger more romantic partners 

• Even though people may not have strong romantic feelings for someone, when that person enters a relationship they may report feeling strongly for that person 

• Tied to mate copying hypothesis; someone sees good traits in you → explore

  • Admirers tend to be someone close by 

strategic interference theory

• conflict between sexes involving mating strategies

  • Men desire variety; women discriminatory  

• Strategic interference - employing strategies to reach a goal —> another person blocks you 

  • Ex - woman delays sex until emotional connection but man persists in advances; male interferes with woman’s desires

• negative emotions (anger, distress, and upset) are psychological solutions that evolved to solve adaptive problems posed by strategic interference 

  • Focus attention on problematic events and momentarily screen out less relevant events (attention is scarce and must be allocated well) 

    • anger/distress—> guides attention to source of distress 

• Emotional mark those events for storage in memory and easy retrieval from memory 

• __________

• SI predicted to occur when members of one sex violates desires of the other 

• Negative emotions represent a solution to a bigger problem 

error management theory

• Men & women evolved different cognitive biases to help them find a suitable mate

• Men - Find accessible mate; Women have to not mate with an unsuitable mate 

  • Leads to two biases

sexual overprotection bias

• Men evolved to overestimate women’s friendliness for sexual interest

• Overestimate acts of friendliness (asking to borrow a pen, holding door open

• Underestimating friendliness is more costly than overestimating friendliness

  • False negative more costly since if you miss out on a mating opportunity → less fitness 

  • False positive is more prominent 

commitment skepticism bias

• Women should be cautious of mating with a bad mate  

• Women less likely to perceive that a man is interested in forming a romantic relationship with them 

  • Protection mechanism 

• younger women greater skepticism than older 

  • don’t have to worry about fathering with an unsuitable partner 

Paternity Uncertainty Hypothesis

• Paternity Uncertainty - insemination internal —> uncertainty about father

  • Because of internal female fertilization, when a male comes on the scene, the female may already have mater with another male, so her eggs may already be fertilized

• It is necessary to be “sure” because no conscious recognition of their certainty in parenthood is necessary 

• ____

jealousy

• Mate poachers - steal your partner; prevalence 33%, no sex diff

  • Cross cultural  

  • Assortative Mating - tendency to date and mate long term with someone similar (personality, height, attractiveness, status); discrepancies can be costly

    • Ex - Men think they can steal a woman bc man is less attractive 

• Other Man Effect 

  • Cheating men

    • Thrusted quicker, deeper, more vigorous 

    • More intense orgasms 

  • Women did not orgasm; less likely (orgasm gap)

  • Attempted to prolong intercourse for as long as possible when having sex with someone 

• Jealousy probably evolved

  • To be vigilant  - mate guarding → act

  • Curtail contact with other men 

  • Change own efforts to fulfill partner’s desires 

  • Threaten/fend off rivals —> show interest in partner 

• Man’s jealousy should focus on sexual contact; jeopardizes paternity of offspring 

• 83% of women find emotional infidelity distressing 

• 60% of men find sexual infidelity distressing

mate retention

• Conceal partner’s behavior 

• What gender does what more often - exam

• Mate retention - suite of behaviors used to conceal a partner to make them less likely to cheat

  • Men 

    • Resource display

    • Violence to the other man 

    • Violence to other woman 

    • men mated to fertile women used

      more economic, threatening, and intimidating forms of controlling behavior

    • conceal mates

    • submit to mates

  • Women 

    • Enhance appearance (makeup, new fashion trends)

    • Elicit jealousy - Show partner they have other prospects