Politics Final Exam Review

The State

a centralized political entity that exercises sovereign authority, control, and regulation over a specific territory and its population. It constitutes a government, bureaucracy, and legal system, holding a monopoly on the legitimate use of force within its borders. Key elements include a defined territory, a permanent population, a government, and sovereignty (independence from outside control).

• Historically, states emerged from agricultural societies requiring organization, often starting as city-states and evolving into kingdoms or empires. A failed state occurs when a government cannot maintain order, often losing control to warlords or gangs.

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• political entity that exercises sovereign authority over a defined territory and population.

Three definitive features of the modern state (See Max Weber, Politics as a Vocation):

• Monopoly on force – has the right and ability to use violence, in legally defined instances, against members of society, or against other states

• Legitimacy – its power is recognized by members of society and by other states as based on law and some form of justice.

• Territoriality – the state exists in a defined territory (which includes land, water and air) and exercises authority over the population of that territory

• For something to be considered a state, it must meet four criteria (the Montevideo Criteria): a permanent population, a defined territory, an effective government, and the capacity to enter into relations with other states.

• The state holds a monopoly on the legitimate use of force within its borders (Weber's definition).

• The political term “the state” conveys the idea of “an impersonal and sovereign political order”* in society

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Oxford:

• Marxists, political sociologists, and political anthropologists usually favour a broad definition which draws attention to the role of coercion‐wielding organizations who exercise clear priority in decision‐making and claim paramountcy in the application of naked force to social problems within territorial boundaries.

• By this standard, archaeological remains signal the existence of states from 6000 bc, with written or pictorial records testifying to their presence from 4000 bc.

• Weber in Politics as a Vocation. Weber emphasizes three aspects of the modern state: its territoriality; its monopoly of the means of physical violence; and its legitimacy. Without social institutions claiming a monopoly of the legitimate use of force within a given territory, Weber argues, a condition of anarchy would quickly ensue.

• a fundamental activity of the state, the attempt to legitimate the structure of domination.

• three main traditions within political science which inform ‘theories of the state’: the pluralist, the Marxist, and the statist traditions.

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The state arises at a certain stage in social evolution: when human society becomes bigger, more complex, more productive, more divided by private property – and when the very existence of society begins to require a special mechanism for coordination and use of social power

The state – a highly structured organization of power over a

more developed, more complex, class-divided society.

◆ The state is capable of performing large-scale complex tasks:

 maintaining social order, suppressing social revolts,

waging wars,

organizing construction of fortresses, dams and canals,

minting money.

◆ It has the power to tax and to punish those who break the law

◆ The city is the seat of state power

◼ First states appear in Egypt, Babylon, Assyria and Persia

(Iran), beginning around 5,000 years ago.

Governor General of Canada

• the representative of the Canadian Crown — specifically, the monarch — in Canada, and serves as the formal head of state at the federal level. The role is largely ceremonial but carries important constitutional functions: swearing in the Prime Minister and Cabinet, reading the Speech from the Throne, granting Royal Assent to bills (making them law)

• the representative of the monarch in Canada. Even though Canada is an independent country, it is a constitutional monarchy, so the monarch is the official head of state—and the Governor General carries out most of their duties in Canada.

• Formal/ceremonial role: They represent Canada at official events, ceremonies, and state visits.

• Government duties:

  • Gives Royal Assent to laws (makes bills officially law)

  • Opens and closes Parliament

  • Reads the Speech from the Throne (outlining the government’s plans)

• Constitutional role:

  • Appoints the Prime Minister (usually the leader of the party that wins the most seats)

  • Ensures the government follows constitutional rules

• almost always acts on the advice of the Prime Minister **.

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Mary Simon is the 30th and current Governor General of Canada, having been installed on July 26, 2021. She is the representative of His Majesty King Charles III, who is Canada's head of state.

• carries out the duties of the Sovereign, including granting Royal Assent to legislation, appointing the Prime Minister and Cabinet, and dissolving Parliament.

• typically serving a five-year term, the Governor General may continue until a successor is appointed.

• appointed by the Sovereign (the King) on the specific advice and recommendation of the Canadian Prime Minister.

Populism

• a political ideology or style that frames politics as a struggle between "the pure people" and a corrupt elite, claiming that political power should be returned to the ordinary people.

• it can appear across the ideological spectrum.

• tends to be anti-establishment, distrustful of institutions, and often relies on a charismatic leader who claims to speak directly for "the people.

a political idea or strategy that frames society as divided into two main groups:

• “the ordinary people”

• vs. “the elite” (politicians, wealthy individuals, institutions)

Populist leaders claim that they represent the true will of the people and that the elite are corrupt

Core features of populism:

• People vs. elite narrative: Politics is presented as a struggle between regular citizens and powerful insiders.

• Anti-establishment: Distrust of governments, experts, media, or big institutions.

• Strong leadership appeal: Often centered around a charismatic leader who claims to “fix the system.”

Can be:

• Left-wing populism: focuses on inequality, big corporations, and wealth gaps

• Right-wing populism: often focuses on nationalism, immigration, and cultural identity

• Right-wing populism often targets immigration and globalization (e.g., Donald Trump); left-wing populism targets economic inequality and corporate power (e.g., Hugo Chávez in Venezuela).

• Critics argue it is dangerous because it can undermine democratic institutions, minority rights, and the rule of law by claiming the majority's will trumps all other considerations.

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Oxford:

• generally, support for the preferences of ordinary people. The meaning has always been somewhat derogatory. In so far as a specific set of populist beliefs can be identified, they involve defence of the (supposed) traditions of the little man against change seen as imposed by powerful outsiders, which might variously be governments, businesses, or trade unions

Separation of powers

• fundamental democratic principle

a constitutional doctrine that divides government responsibilities into distinct branches—typically legislative, executive, and judicial

• prevents the concentration of power, ensuring checks and balances, and safeguards against authoritarian rule.

• prevent the abuse of power by ensuring no single person or group holds all authority

• While separate, the branches often have powers to check the others, such as judicial review of legislation or executive veto power.

• a constitutional principle by which the authority of the state is divided among three distinct branches of government

• the legislative (makes laws)

• the executive (implements laws)

• and the judicial (interprets laws)

• so that no single branch holds all power. The goal is to prevent tyranny and create a system of checks and balances.

a system in government where power is divided into different branches so that no single person or group has too much control.

3 branches:

1. Legislative (makes laws)

   • Example: Parliament in Canada

   • USA Congress

2. Executive (enforces laws)

   • Example: monarch represented by governor general, The Prime Minister and Cabinet

   • USA President

3. Judicial (interprets laws)

   • Example: Courts and judges

   • USA Supreme Court

- strongly used in countries like the United States, where each branch is very separate. In Canada, there is some overlap (because it’s a parliamentary system), but the principle still exists—courts are independent, and different parts of government have different roles.

• Prevents abuse of power

• Creates checks and balances (branches can limit the others)

• Protects democracy and citizens’ rights; protects individual freedoms

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Oxford:

• doctrine that political power should be divided among several bodies as a precaution against tyranny. Opposed to absolute sovereignty of the Crown, Parliament, or any other body.

• - Defenders of separation of powers insist that it is needed against tyranny, including the tyranny of the majority.

• - Its opponents argue that sovereignty must lie somewhere, and that it is better, and arguably more democratic, to ensure that it always lies with the same body (such as Parliament).

Legitimacy

a key principle of democracy

• the quality that makes political authority recognized as rightful, justified, and worthy of obedience by those it governs.

• legitimate authority is obeyed because people believe it has the right to rule.

the popular acceptance and recognition of a government's right to rule, transforms power into justified authority.

• When legitimacy is high, citizens believe the government is right and proper, leading to voluntary compliance with laws.

• critical for political stability, reduces the need for coercion/force

Max Weber identified three types of legitimacy:

• traditional (based on custom and tradition, e.g., monarchy),

• charismatic (based on personal qualities of a leader, e.g., a revolutionary figure),

• and rational-legal (based on established laws and procedures, e.g., modern democracies).

• Legitimacy is crucial — governments that lose it face protest, disobedience, or collapse, as seen in the Arab Spring.

(

• Rational-Legal: Based on legal rules and procedures, such as democratic elections.

• Charismatic: Based on the personal appeal or heroism of a leader.

• Traditional: Based on long-standing customs and habits.)

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• High legitimacy makes society easier to govern, reduces conflicts in society

• Low legitimacy has opposite effects

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Oxford:

• the property that a regime’s procedures for making and enforcing laws are acceptable to its subjects.

Civil society organization

• a voluntary, non-governmental, and non-profit organization formed by citizens to pursue shared interests, advocate for causes, or provide services outside of the state and the market.

• Examples include trade unions, NGOs, religious organizations, advocacy groups (like Amnesty International), and community associations.

• In authoritarian regimes, civil society is often suppressed precisely because of its potential to challenge state power.

• watchdogs, service providers, advocate for marginalized groups

a non-governmental, non-profit, and voluntary group formed by citizens to advance shared interests, values, or goals. Operating independently from both the state and the market

• act as mediators between public authorities and citizens to influence policy and foster development.

• non-governmental organizations (NGOs), community groups, labor unions, faith-based organizations, professional associations, foundations.

• Advocate for human rights, promote social development, provide humanitarian aid, and monitor government actions.

Communism

Communism – a revolutionary ideology aimed at the overthrow of capitalism, abolition of private property, creation of a one-party state with a planned state-owned (or mixed state-private) economy

• Leans left state, rather than left market, or right

• Far left, radicals

“A system in which private property has been replaced by collective or communal ownership and everyone is free to take from society what they need.” - Textbook

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a political and economic ideology that calls for the abolition of private property, class distinctions, and the state, resulting in a classless society in which the means of production are owned collectively.

• Rooted in the work of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels,

• communism argues that capitalism exploits the working class (proletariat) for the benefit of the ownership class (bourgeoisie), and that a revolution is necessary to overthrow this system.

• In practice, communist states (USSR, Cuba, China) established one-party rule and state ownership of the economy

• Critics note that historical communist regimes became authoritarian and failed to achieve the classless society they promised.

a far-left political and economic ideology aiming for a classless, stateless society with common ownership of the means of production.

Founded on theories by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, it proposes replacing capitalism and private property with communal ownership to eliminate income inequality,

often leading to centrally planned economies and one-party rule.

• formally outlined in the 1848 publication of The Communist Manifesto.

• The Soviet Union: The 1917 Russian Revolution established the first communist-led state, later the USSR, which served as a model for other countries.

Common Criticisms and Challenges

• Economic Inefficiency

• Lack of Freedoms

• Human Rights: Historically, the enforcement of communist ideals has been associated with significant political repression and loss of life.

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Oxford:

• a process of class conflict and revolutionary struggle, resulting in victory for the proletariat and the establishment of a classless, socialist society in which private ownership has been abolished and the means of production and subsistence belong to the community.

Fascism

• far right, reactionaries

• leans far right and state, rather than market

Fascism

--open rejection of democracy in favor of dictatorship;

--mass mobilization of citizens for the creation of a

totalitarian state which abolishes democratic rights

and liberties;

--extreme nationalism;

--racism;

--a cult of political violence;

--militarism, wars of conquest

“An ideology that combines an aggressive form of nationalism with a strong belief in the naturalness of inequality and opposition to both liberal democracy and communism.” - Textbook

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an authoritarian, ultranationalist ideology that

• prioritizes the strength of the nation or race above individual rights,

• glorifies the state and its leader,

• and rejects liberal democracy, Marxism, and individual freedoms in favor of unity, hierarchy, and power.

• Fascism emerged in the 1920s–30s in Europe, most notably in Mussolini's Italy and Hitler's Germany.

• Key features include a charismatic dictator, a single ruling party, suppression of opposition, aggressive militarism, and the use of propaganda.

• Unlike communism, fascism does not seek to abolish capitalism or class distinctions — it uses them while subordinating them to national goals.

a far-right, authoritarian, and ultranationalist political ideology that emerged in early 20th-century Europe,

• characterized by dictatorial power, forcible suppression of opposition, and the subordination of individual interests to the perceived good of the nation or race.

• emphasizes intense nationalism, militarism, charismatic leader

• Ultranationalism

• Authoritarianism

• Cult of Leader

• Militarism and Violence

• Economic Control

• Scapegoating: Identifying specific groups (minorities, foreigners, political opponents) as threats to national purity.

• anti-liberal, anti-communist, and anti-democratic

• promises national rebirth

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Oxford:

• A right‐wing nationalist ideology or movement with a totalitarian and hierarchical structure that is fundamentally opposed to democracy and liberalism. In ancient Rome, the authority of the state was symbolized by the fasces, a bundle of rods bound together (signifying popular unity) with a protruding axe‐head (denoting leadership). As such, it was appropriated by Mussolini to label the movement he led to power in Italy in 1922, but was subsequently generalized to cover a whole range of movements in Europe during the inter‐war period.

• extreme nationalism, an assertion of national decline, diminution of the racial purity of the nation,

• authoritarian and antiliberal state dominated by a single party, total control over political aggregation, communication, and socialization,

• productionist and self‐sufficient economy, charismatic leader

Social inequality

• the unequal distribution of resources, opportunities, rights, and privileges among individuals and groups within a society, typically along lines of class, race, gender, ethnicity, or other social categories.

• disparities in power, access to education, healthcare, political representation, and social status.

• both a cause and an effect of political structures — states can reduce inequality through redistributive policies (taxation, social programs) or entrench it through discriminatory laws.

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• the unequal distribution of resources, opportunities, and rewards—such as wealth, power, and prestige—among different groups in society.

• often influenced by race, gender, class, and age.

• Common types include economic inequality (wealth/income gaps), healthcare disparities, and unequal access to education.

Social Stratification: An institutionalized, hierarchical system that ranks categories of people, determining who gets what and why.

Types of Systems:

Closed systems: Limit mobility between social layers.

Open systems: Based on achievement, allowing movement between classes.

Constitution

“The fundamental rules and principles by which a state is governed.” - Textbook

• constitutional amendment = A formal change to the constitution.

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• foundational legal document or set of principles that establishes the basic structure of government, defines the powers and limits of political institutions, and guarantees the rights of citizens.

• It is the supreme law of the land — all other laws must conform to it.

• Constitutions can be written (like the U.S. Constitution, 1787) or unwritten/conventional (like the UK's, based on statutes, precedents, and conventions).

• Canada's constitution includes the Constitution Act 1867, the Constitution Act 1982, and the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms.

• the supreme law of a nation, establishing the foundational rules for how a country is governed.

• defines the structure of government, distributes powers among branches, and often guarantees fundamental rights and freedoms for citizens.

• If a law contradicts the constitution, it is considered invalid.

• Supreme Law

• Government Structure/Structure of Governance: outlines. creates, and empowers institutions, defines branches of gov

• Protection of Rights

• entenched, also set out the rules for amending themselves.

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Oxford:

• The set of fundamental rules governing the politics of a nation or subnational body

Majoritarian system

• an electoral system in which the candidate or party that wins the most votes (a majority or plurality) in a given district wins representation, and all other votes do not translate into seats.

• The most common form is the First-Past-the-Post (FPTP) system, used in Canada, the UK, and the US, where a single winner is chosen per district regardless of whether they got 50%+1 or just more than anyone else.

• This tends to produce strong majority governments and two-party systems but can result in a significant portion of voters being unrepresented.

• For example, in Canada a party can win a majority of seats in Parliament with only 35–40% of the popular vote.

• often contrasted with proportional representation systems.

• a political or electoral framework based on the principle of majority rule, where the candidate or party with the most support wins.

• prioritize "clear winners and losers" and strong/stable governance over perfect proportionality

• Key characteristics: Winner-Take-All, Single-Member Districts, Two-Party Dominance

Pros

• Often leads to stable governments (fewer coalition governments)

• simplicity

• supposed clear winner thus strong leadership

Cons

• Disproportionality, Not fully representative

• Wasted votes

• Tyranny of the Majority: Critics argue the system can marginalize or exclude minority groups from political power.

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• “Plurality and majoritarian systems typically involve electing a single representative based on which candidate has more votes than any other candidate.

• In the majoritarian version, the electoral system is designed to try to ensure that the winning candidate has the support of a majority of those voting.

• Plurality and majoritarian systems often result in a party gaining a majority of legislative seats, even if that party did not win a majority of votes.” - Textbook

Political culture

“The fundamental political values, beliefs, and orientations that are widely held within a political community.” - textbook

Lec slides:

• Political culture – the broad pattern of political traditions, habits, values shared by a large group of people (a nation, a region, a class, an ethnic group)

Three levels of political culture*

• System; Pride in a nation, National identity, Legitimacy of government

• Process; Principles of government, Role of citizens, People’s basic political beliefs

• Policy; Role of government, Government policy priorities

• National Pride, civic culture,

• subcultures, may be conflictual, rifts caused by such factors as: Class, Ethnicity or race, Religion, Regional differences

• Political cultures change slowly, but they do evolve

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• the set of shared values, beliefs, attitudes, and norms that a society holds about politics, government, and the proper relationship between citizens and the state.

• It shapes how people think about authority, participation, rights, and legitimacy.

• Political culture is transmitted through family, education, media, and lived experience (political socialization).