Chapter 6: Factors Affecting the Behavior of People at Work

Movere

The word motivation comes from the Latin “____'“ meaning “to move.”

Motivation

is the force that energizes, directs, and sustains behaviour.

Richard M. Ryan and Edward L. Deci

According to _____ and _____ (2000), to be motivated means being moved to act toward a goal, while lack of motivation means no drive or inspiration to act.

John E. Hunter

• Research by _____ et al. (1990) found:

• 19% higher performance in basic roles between superior and average performers

• 48% higher performance in complex jobs

Greek philosophers.

The earliest ideas about motivation came from

Hedonism

Greek philosophers proposed ____, the idea that:

• People seek pleasure

• People avoid pain

John Locke and Jeremy Bentham

Hedonism was later developed by: ____ and _____

These thinkers emphasized that human actions are influenced by the pursuit of positive outcomes and avoidance of negative consequences.

Edwin A. Locke and Gary P. Latham

According to Edwin A. Locke and Gary P. Latham (2004), motivation includes:

• Internal factors (drives, needs)

• External factors (rewards, incentives)

Internal and external force

According to Edwin A. Locke and Gary P. Latham (2004), motivation includes:

• ______ (drives, needs)

• ______ (rewards, incentives)

Direction, Effort, Persistence

Components of Motivation (Arnold et al., 1991)

• ______ - what a person is trying to achieve

• ______ - how hard a person is trying

• ______ - how long a person continues trying

Reinforcement Theory

• Focuses on how behaviour is shaped by rewards and punishments.

• developed by Edward Thorndike (1911)

• is based on the “law of effect”.

• It states that people learn to associate their actions with consequences, and this learning shapes future behaviour.

• If a behaviour leads to a positive outcome, it is likely to be repeated.

• Individuals repeat actions that have worked well in the past.

• Behaviour is shaped over time through experience and feedback.

Edward Thorndike

Reinforcement theory, developed by ____ (1991)

Law of effect

Reinforcement Theory is based on the

Operant Conditioning

• Expanded by B. F. Skinner (1953).

• Influenced by Ivan Pavlov and his classical conditioning experiments.

• Suggests that behaviour is controlled by its consequences.

• Used to explain:

  • Work motivation

  • Job performance

• Forms the basis for:

  • Performance-related pay

  • The “carrot and stick” approach (rewards and penalties)

Work motivation and job performance

Operant conditioning is used to explain

Performance-related pay, carrot and stick approach

Operant conditioning forms the basis of

• ______

• _____ (rewards and penalties)

Daniel H. Pink

Reinforcement Theory Criticism

• Oversimplifies Human Behaviour

• Ignores Context

• Neglects Expectations

• “Hedonism of the Past”

• Critique by ______ (2009)

• Rewards and punishments can:

  • Reduce intrinsic motivation

  • Limit creativity

  • Encourage short-term thinking or unethical behaviour

Content theories

_____ explain motivation based on human needs.

They assume that:

• Unsatisfied needs create tension

• This leads to a state of imbalance (disequilibrium)

• Individuals are driven to restore balance by satisfying those needs

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

• people are driven to fulfill basic needs before progressing to more complex psychological and growth needs.

• Physiological Needs: The most basic biological requirements for human survival, including air, food, water, shelter, warmth, and sleep.

• Safety Needs: The need for protection from elements, security, order, law, stability, and freedom from fear.

• Love and Belonging Needs:

  Social and psychological needs involving interpersonal connections. This includes friendship, intimacy, trust, acceptance, receiving and giving affection, and being part of a group (family, friends, or work).

• Esteem Needs: Maslow classified these into two categories:

  • Esteem for oneself (dignity, achievement, mastery, independence).

  • The desire for reputation or respect from others (status, prestige).

• Self-Actualization Needs: The highest level, representing personal growth, self-fulfillment, and realizing one's full potential. As Maslow put it, "What a man can be, he must be."

Alderfer’s ERG Theory

condenses Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs into three core categories: Existence, Relatedness, and Growth.

• Existence (E): Encompasses basic physical and material survival needs, such as physiological requirements (food, water, shelter) and safety (job security, safe working conditions).

• Relatedness (R): Covers the desire for meaningful interpersonal relationships, social connections, love, and belonging. It involves interactions with family, friends, supervisors, and coworkers.

• Growth (G): Represents the intrinsic drive for personal development, self-esteem, self-actualization, and reaching one's full potential through creative or challenging work.

McClelland’s Achievement Motivation

human behavior is driven by three learned motivators: the need for achievement, the need for power, and the need for affiliation.

1. Need for Achievement - This is the drive to excel, overcome challenges, and achieve success based on a set of standards

2. Need for Power This is the desire to control, influence, or be responsible for other people and to have an impact on one's environment.

3. Need for Affiliation - This is the desire for friendly, close interpersonal relationships and a sense of belonging.

Herzberg’s Two-Factor Model

• states that job satisfaction and dissatisfaction are driven by separate factors:

• Motivators (intrinsic, such as recognition) create satisfaction,

• while Hygiene Factors (extrinsic, such as salary) prevent dissatisfaction.

• Hygiene Factors (Dissatisfiers): These pertain to the job environment and, when absent or inadequate, cause dissatisfaction. They are extrinsic to the work itself.

  • Examples:

    Salary, company policies, supervision, interpersonal relationships, working conditions, and job security.

• Motivators (Satisfiers): These are intrinsic to the work itself and lead to higher satisfaction, motivation, and performance.

  • Examples: Achievement, recognition, responsibility, growth, advancement, and the work itself.

John Shields

According to _____ (2007), content theories of motivation have several important limitations:

• Assumption of Universal Needs

• Rigid Hierarchy of Needs

• Direct Link Between Needs and Behaviour

• Underestimation of Extrinsic Rewards

Process/Cognitive Theory

• focuses on the psychological and mental processes that influence motivation.

• It explains how motivation occurs, not just what causes it.

• Also known as _____ because it emphasizes:

• People’s perceptions

• Their interpretations of the work environment

• How they make decisions about behavior

Porter and Lawler’s Expectancy Theory, based on Vroom (1964)

proposes that an individual's motivation relies on how much they value a reward and if they believe their efforts will lead to that reward.

motivation relies on aligning rewards to people's needs.

Latham and Locke’s Goal Theory

states that specific, measurable, and challenging goals—coupled with constructive feedback—lead to significantly higher motivation and task performance than vague instructions like to "do your best"

• Clarity: Goals should be specific, clear, and measurable so individuals know exactly what success looks like and how their progress will be evaluated.

• Challenge: Goals must be difficult enough to stretch an individual’s capabilities but remain realistic and attainable.

• Commitment: The individual must genuinely want to achieve the goal. Goals that are collaboratively set or clearly explained are more readily accepted.

• Feedback: Regular, constructive feedback allows individuals to adjust their effort or correct errors when straying from the target.

• Task Complexity: For highly complex tasks, individuals need sufficient time to learn and break the larger goal down into smaller, manageable steps

Adam’s Equity Theory

proposes that employees are motivated by fairness in the workplace. It states that individuals compare their input-output ratio (effort vs. reward) with that of peers, and if they perceive inequity, they will act to restore balance

• Inputs: What an employee contributes to the job, including effort, skills, education, experience, enthusiasm, and loyalty.

• Outputs (Outcomes): What an employee receives from the job, such as salary, bonuses, benefits, recognition, and promotion

• Comparison Other: The individuals or groups with whom a worker compares their ratio (e.g., coworkers, colleagues at other firms)

Deci and Ryan’s Self Determination Theory

It argues that people are inherently driven to grow and succeed, and that this natural motivation thrives best when three innate, universal psychological needs are satisfied: autonomy, competence, and relatedness.

• Autonomy: The need to feel in control of the course of one's life. It involves acting in alignment with one's true interests and values rather than being externally pressured or controlled.

• Competence: The need to effectively master one's environment, feel capable, and achieve desired outcomes. This is fostered through optimal challenges and positive feedback.

• Relatedness: The need to feel connected, understood, and cared for by others. It involves developing a sense of belonging within a community or relationship.

Generation Z

Process Theory Criticism

• Motivation is not the same for everyone.

• Factors such as age, personality, and experience can shape what motivates people.

• Research by Ravindra Dwivedula and Shilpi Singh (2020) on _____ (born 1996–2010) found key motivators:

• Organizational supportGrowth opportunities

• Rewards and accountability

• Work-related interaction

Intrinsic Motivating Factors, The Quality of Supervision, Social Contacts, Success or Failure

The factors that affect job satisfaction

Commitment

• refers to attachment and loyalty to an organization.

• It reflects employees’ feelings and emotional connection to their workplace.

• According to Richard T. Mowday (1998), it involves emotional attachment based on shared values and interests.

Richard T. Mowday

According to _____ (1998), it involves emotional attachment based on shared values and interests.

Desire to remain, Beliefs in values and goals, Willingness to exert effort

According to Mowday et al. 1982, the characteristics of commitment are:

Richard E. Walton

Elements of Mutuality (_____, 1985)

Mutual goals – shared objectives between management and employees

Mutual influence – both parties have a voice in decisions

Mutual respect – recognition of each other’s value

Mutual rewards – fair sharing of benefits and outcomes

Mutual responsibility – shared accountability for success

Mutual goals

shared objectives between management and employees

Mutual influence

both parties have a voice in decisions

Mutual respect

recognition of each other’s value

Mutual rewards

fair sharing of benefits and outcomes

Mutual responsibility

shared accountability for success

Mutuality and Commitment

Policies that promote mutuality help to:

• Build trust and cooperation

• Strengthen employee commitment

Increased commitment leads to:

• Better organizational performance

• Greater employee development

Strategic Level, Functional (HR Policy) Level, Workplace Level

Factors affecting Commitment

According to Kochan & Dyer (1993), the following are the factors:

Kochan & Dyer

According to Kochan & Dyer (1993), the following are the factors affecting commitment

1. Strategic Level

2. Functional (HR Policy) Level

3. Workplace Level

John Purcell

Key Drivers of Commitment in Practice

According to _____ et al., (2003), the following drivers are:

• Training and development opportunities (e.g., received training in the past year)

• Satisfaction with career opportunities

• Positive perception of performance appraisal systems

• Effective leadership and people management

• Challenging and meaningful work

• Support for work–life balance

• Good communication and confidence in company performance

HR’s Role in Enhancing Commitment

HR should play a major part in developing a high commitment organization. The 10 steps it can take are:

1. Advise on methods of communicating the values and aims of management.

2. Emphasize to management that commitment is a two-way process.

3. Impress on management the need to develop a climate of trust.

4. Develop a positive psychological contract.

5. Advise on the establishment of partnership agreements with trade unions.

6. Recommend and take part in the achievement of single status for all employees.

7. Encourage management to declare a policy of employment security

8. Develop performance management processes.

9. Advise on means of increasing employee identification

   with the company.

10. Enhance employee job engagement through job.

William A. Kahn

_____ (1990) defined employee engagement as:

• The harnessing of employees’ physical, cognitive, and emotional selves into their work roles.

James K. Harter

_____ et al. (2002):

Engagement is involvement, satisfaction, and enthusiasm for work.

Alan M. Saks

Engagement is multidimensional construct involving:

• Cognitive

• Emotional

• Behavioural components

Intellectual, Affective, Social Engagement

Core Facets of Engagement (Kerstin Alfes et al., 2010)

• Thinking deeply about the job and how to improve performance

• Feeling positive and enthusiastic about doing a good job

• Actively interacting with others to share ideas and improve work

Job Engagement and Organizational Commitment

Types of Engagement (Saks, 2006)

• _____ - Involvement in performing one’s specific work role

• _____ - Involvement as a member of the organization

Engagement is best understood as a combination of these two types.

Motivation, Commitment, Organizational Citizenship Behavior

Components of Employee Engagement

Employee engagement can be viewed as a combination of three overlapping components:

1. Motivation – the drive to act and perform

2. Commitment – emotional attachment and loyalty to the organization

3. ______ (OCB) – voluntary actions that go beyond formal job requirements

This integrated view was highlighted by the Institute for Employment Studies (Armstrong et al., 2010).

Job challenge, Autonomy, Variety, Feedback, Fit, Opportunities for development, Rewards and recognition

Drivers of Employee Engagement

To be able to do anything about engagement it is necessary to understand the factors that affect it. Crawford et al (2014: 59–62) listed the following drivers:

• Job challenge – meaningful and demanding work

• Autonomy – freedom and independence at work

• Variety – diverse tasks and skill use

• Feedback – clear performance information

• Fit – alignment with work environment

• Opportunities for development – growth and career advancement

• Rewards and recognition – acknowledgment and returns for effort

Crawford

Drivers of Employee Engagement

To be able to do anything about engagement it is necessary to understand the factors that affect it. _____ et al (2014: 59–62) listed the following drivers: Job challenge, Autonomy, Variety, Feedback, Fit, Opportunities for development, Rewards and recognition

Burnout

can take place when individuals are placed under too much pressure to perform. It is sometimes called disengagement.

Workaholics who overexert themselves are particularly at risk of _____

Consequences of burnout include failure, absenteeism, or leaving the organization.

Maslach and Jackson

_____ (1981: 99) define burnout as “a syndrome of emotional exhaustion and cynicism.”