AP Pysch vocab comprehensive

hindsight bias

the idea that after an event we believe we could have seen it coming

overconfidence

thinking you know more than you actually do, overestimating your own ability

operational definition

precise, exact description of the operation (procedures, concepts, etc) used in a study to allow replication and avoid confusion

case study

form of research study involving the in-depth study of an individual or small group, usually with a condition/experience that cannot be ethically replicated

naturalistic observation

form of research involving the observation of behavior without any form of manipulation, i.e. naturally

survey

a representative sample self-reports behavior/attitudes

social desirability bias

bias stemming from respondents answering in the way they think the researchers want them to

self reporting bias

people can’t be trusted to honestly report their own behaviors

random sample

a sample where every individual in the population has the same chance of being included

correlation

two factors vary together and can be used to predict the other

positive: as A increases, B does too

negative: as A increases, B decreases

correlation coefficient

statistical index from -1 to 1 measuring the strength of two variables’ relationship (how well one predicts the other)

illusory correlations

thinking a correlation exists where it doesn’t or is stronger than actually the case

experimental group

the group randomly assigned to receive treatment (i.e. the independent variable)

control group

the group randomly assigned to receive no treatment/a placebo treatment, used to contrast and draw conclusions

random assignment

dividing participants into experimental and control groups randomly, necessary for a study to be an experiment and to show causation

double blind procedure

when both the research participants AND experimenters are unaware which participants received the treatment vs the placebo in order to minimize experimenter bias

placebo

a “treatment” that has no actual treatment but is given to participants so they do not know which group (experimental vs control) they are in

priming

influencing behavior via exposure to particular stimuli (intentional question order, for example)

false consensus effect

assumption that most people share the same beliefs as/think the same as you

Hawthorne effect

people act differently when they know they are being watched

informed consent

ensuring potential research participants have full information about the study before they decide whether or not to participate

debrief

explain the procedures and results of a study to participants after its conclusion, particularly if deception was used in the study

negative skew

same as skewed right in stats

positive skew

same as skewed left in stats

meta analysis

form of research synthesizing the results of multiple studies to draw a more general conclusion

effect size

how strong of a correlation exists between two variables (the larger the effect size, the stronger the correlation, the more impactful and important the results)

right to withdrawal

the right of study participants to leave/stop participating at any point

protection from harm

researchers cannot harm participants emotionally, mentally, or physically

confidentiality

researchers must guarantee and protect the anonymity of participants in published results

deception

allowed only when it is related to and necessary fort the experiment, and requires explanation of the deception after study is over (debriefing)

Institutional Review Board (IRB) approval

ensures ethical guidelines are met before research allowed to commence; oversight!!

nature vs nurture

are we are who we are because of nature (genes, inherent unchangeable factors) or because of nurture (how we’re raised, environment)?

behavior genetics

the study of what traits about us cannot be attributed to evolution but instead are due to individual factors

epigenetics

the study of how environment influences genetic expression without changing DNA

central nervous system (CNS)

the brain and the spinal cord

peripheral nervous system (PNS)

the neurons connecting the CNS to your body

motor neurons

aka efferent neurons, carry information from brain to body (outgoing)

sensory neurons

aka afferent neurons, carry information from body to brain (incoming)

interneurons

neurons within the brain and spinal cord, used for internal communication

somatic nervous system

the part of the PNS that controls skeletal muscles and movement

autonomic nervous system (ANS)

the part of the PNS that controls automatic processes and internal organs and maintains homeostasis

sympathetic nervous system

division of ANS that awakens body and increase energy (think: fight or flight response)

parasympathetic nervous system

division of ANS that calms the body down and decreases energy

reflex

automatic response to a sense: pain (jerk away), blinding light (close eyes), knee jerk

fight or flight reaction

physical fear response manifesting as instinct to either fight or run away

cell body

part of neuron containing nucleus; aka soma

dendrites

the extensions of a neuron from the cell body that receive messages

axon

tail part of a neuron that sends messages to other cells

myelin sheath

the tissue protecting the axons of the neuron, increases speed of messages

glial cells

neuron support cells basically

action potential

the “neural impulse,” and charge sent down the axon—basically, the message

threshold

the minimum stimulation required to trigger impulse

refractory period

the pause after a neuron fires in which it cannot fire again, no matter the stimuli

all-or-nothing principle

no levels of impulse—a neuron will either fire or it won’t fire, depending on whether a stimulus cleared the threshold

synapse

the junction/gap between neurons through which neurotransmitters are sent

reuptake

the process of a neurotransmitter being reabsorbed back into the axon terminal bulbs of the presynaptic neuron after the action potential

nodes of ranvier

the breaks in the myelin sheath that allow the Na+/K+ pump to maintain membrane potential

axon terminal bulbs

the end of the axon containing vesicles that release neurotransmitters into the synapse

depolarization

the second step of an action potential—when Na+ enters the cell and shifts the membrane potential from negative to positive

repolarization

the third step of an action potential— when K+ leaves the cell, returning the membrane potential to negative

hyperpolarization

the period following repolarization where the membrane potential is briefly too negative

neuroplasticity

the ability of the brain to change and learn, especially when young

lesion

places where brain tissue has been destroyed

structural brain scans

CAT scan, MRI

functional brain scans

EEG, fMRI, PET

adrenaline

hormone released when stress is high, focus/concentration

leptin

regulates appetite suppression and metabolism, lets you know when you’re full

ghrelin

hunger hormone, alerts her to hunger

melatonin

regulates sleep cycle

oxytocin

social bonding, tissue repair, romantic attraction

agonist

increases effect of neurotransmitters

antagonist

decreases effect of neurotransmitters

medulla

controls basic life functions like breathing and heart rate

reticulatory activating system

controls movement, sleep, and some types of emotion and learning

cerebellum

responsible for coordination, balance, and procedural learning (muscle memory)

thalamus

directs sensory inputs to the appropriate part of the brain

hypothalamus

regulates autonomic nervous system, maintains homeostasis

pituitary gland

master gland of endocrine system, regulates and releases hormones

hippocampus

primary structure in memory consolidation and learning

amygdala

linked to emotions, origin of fight or flight response

occipital lobe

located at the rear of brain, processes visual information

temporal lobe

located on the sides of brain; processes auditory information and language

parietal lobe

located at the top/rear of brain; contains sensory cortex and processes touch

frontal lobe

located at front of brain; controls executive functioning, higher order cognition, and contains motor cortex

Broca’s Area

responsible for ability to produce language—speaking and writing; damage can cause Broca’s aphasia

Wernicke’s Area

responsible for ability to comprehend and understand speech; damage can result in Wernicke’s aphasia

Circadian rhythms

24 hour normal body cycle of sleep and wakefulness

functions of sleep

memory consolidation, resource restoration, and maintenance of homeostasis

insomnia

difficulty falling or staying asleep

narcolepsy

random and uncontrollable sudden bouts of sleep

sleep apnea

disorder involving breathing interruptions and frequent waking up while sleeping

somnambulism

sleepwalking

REM sleep

“rapid eye movement” sleep; the stage of sleep cycle in which you are closest to being awake and in which dreams occur; brain is most awake but body is most relaxed

hypnagogic sensations

vivid, dream-like hallucinations that occur during transition from wakefulness to sleep

REM rebound

boost in REM sleep following period of sleep deprivation

hemispherectomy

procedure in which half of the brain (right hemisphere) is removed; highlights neuroplasticity

split brain

severing the corpus callosum to disconnect hemispheres of brain; treatment for epilepsy

bottom up processing

information processing beginning with sensory receptors and moving “up” through the brain

top down processing

information processing beginning in the brain and constructing perceptions from sensory input based on expectations and experiences

absolute threshold

the minimum stimulation needed to detect a stimulus 50% of the time