Ictheology Final

Semelparous reproduction

Single reproductive episode followed by death

Iteroparous reproduction

Most fish, Capable of reproducing multiple times during life

Ovalentaria

Five orders & >5,850 species united by sticky eggs

Blenniiformes

13 families - 1,960 species, A lot of varied reproductive behaviors, Multiple evolutions of viviparity, Interesting territorial behaviors in damselfishes and various blennioids, Many species elongate, but not fully eel-like, Popular in aquarium trade

Part of Ovalentaria

Pomacentridae

437 species, Primarily tropical marine, most on/near coral reefs, Territorial, Usually small, wide range of colors and bright shades, Omnivorous or herbivorous, Popular in aquarium trade

Part of Ovalentaria & Blenniiformes

Gobiesocidae

195 species, Small, mostly marine on shallow rocky coral reefs or seagrass beds, Can survive up to 3-4 days on land if moistened by waves, oxygen from air through gills, skin, and mouth, Usually tapered bodies, flattened heads, tadpole-like with ventral sucking disc made from pectoral and pelvic fins

Part of Ovalentaria & Blenniiformes

Chaenopsidae

93 species, Marine tropical, mostly small and often elongate, Scaleless, lack lateral line, Some live in abandoned worm tubes or empty clam shells, Some have remarkable ‘dances’ or behaviors

Part of Ovalentaria & Blenniiformes

Blenniidae

413 species, Mostly marine in tropical and subtropical waters of the Atlantic, Pacific, and Indian Oceans, Short head, large eyes, long continuous dorsal fins, Scaleless, small pelvic fins, enlarged pectoral fins, Comb-like teeth, very colorful, popular in aquarium trade

Part of Ovalentaria & Blenniiformes

Atherinomorpha

3 orders, > 30 families, >2,000 species, Tons of support for monophyly: unique jaw protrusion, separation of afferent and efferent circulation during development, and coupling during mating.

Most successful fishes at the surface layer of the world's marine and freshwaters, 75% are connected to fresh or brackish water, most live-bearing ray-finned fishes in this group, Premaxilla does not articulate directly with the maxilla(Protrusion via rotation)

Atheriniformes

11 families, 392 species, Two dorsal fins, weak lateral line, and typically with lateral stripe, Marine, brackish, & freshwater(~60% freshwater), Worldwide in tropics, subtropics, and temperate

Part of Atherinomorpha

Atherinidae

80 species, Abundant, globally distributed in reivers, estuaries, marine coastal, tropical and temperate, Small, elongate, 2 widely separated dorsal fins, No lateral line, form large schools, commercially important for non-human consumption(eels)

Part of Atherinomorpha & Atheriniformes

Atherinopsidae

108 spp. temperature dependent sex determination, Spring Spawn with lower water temperature →all female offspring, Fall Spawn with higher water temperature →all male offspring

Part of Atherinomorpha & Atheriniformes

Phallostethidae

24 spp. priapum and pelvic fins modified to deliver sperm

Part of Atherinomorpha & Atheriniformes

Melanotaeniidae

113 spp., Important in aquarium trade, Australia, New Guinea, Madagascar, Compressed bodies, Sexual dimorphism

Part of Atherinomorpha & Atheriniformes

Cyprinodontiformes

14 families, 1,511 species, Important freshwater fish group, Remarkable salt tolerance, Surface dwellers that eat a lot of insects, Incredibly important in aquarium trade, the guppies, platys, and swordtails

Part of Atherinomorpha

Fundulidae

45 species, Native to North America, Most species small, twisted maxillary bone, Often striped

Part of Atherinomorpha & Cyprinodontiformes

Aplocheilidae

16 species, Freshwater Asia, Madagascar, African species (annual killifishes) live short lifespans, Young age of first reproduction, short lifespan (3–9 months), and lay eggs that undergo diapause in mud

Part of Atherinomorpha & Cyprinodontiformes

Anablepidae

19 species, Viviparous, Males usually with gonopodium (intromittent organ), Believed to mate from only

one side. Right-”handed” male with left-”handed” female, Four-eyed fish focus light from air through lens and thin pupil and from water through thick lower pupil

Part of Atherinomorpha & Cyprinodontiformes

Poeciliidae

280 species, Southeast US to Argentina, Introduced in many locations, Viviparous, Common in the aquarium trade

Part of Atherinomorpha & Cyprinodontiformes

Cyprinodontidae

103 species, Freshwater western US and Mexico, Highly threatened and can survive extreme habitats, Small habitats, Extreme salinity, High temperatures, Low oxygen levels

Part of Atherinomorpha & Cyprinodontiformes

Beloniformes

6 families, 305 species, Open-ocean marine group with some live-bearing freshwater fishes, Surface dwellers in marine and freshwater environments, Group has a tendency to have elongate lower or both jaws, Lay eggs on flotsam (except live-bearing halfbeaks), Different development rates for the jaws in different families (Heterochrony–alternation in developmental rate)

Belonidae

155 species, Most are shallow marine or open ocean fishes, Elongate bodies with long narrow jaws, single dorsal fin far back on body, Upper jaw of juveniles short, reaches full length by adulthood, Known to jump out of water and impale humans(periodically jump 1–100 meters)

Part of Atherinomorpha &Beloniformes

Exocoetidae

189 species, Marine, tropical and subtropical, surface, Can leap out of water and glide using

wing-like pectoral fins and extra rigid vertebral columns, Escape underwater predators, Average flight is ~ 50 m, long flights upwards of 400 m, Can reach 43 mph and 20 ft above the waves

Part of Atherinomorpha & Beloniformes

Cichliformes

3 families, 2,354 species

Part of Atherinomorpha

Pholidichthyidae

3 Species, Marine, Philippines to Solomon Islands, Anguilliform body, Scaleless, Juvenile mimicry, Live in maze of burrows, young dangle from roof of tunnel by mouth and thin mucous threads

Part of Atherinomorpha & Cichliformes

Cichlidae

Freshwater, Madagascar, India, Iran, Africa, South & Central America (to Texas), Greater Antilles, Model organism for adaptive radiation, Remarkable dietary & behavioral variation, Diversity of cichlids has been linked to pharyngognathy, Remarkable reproductive behaviors and characteristics: Egg dummies, Remarkable reproductive behaviors and characteristics: Feeding young, Mouth Brooding, egg laying, etc., Aquariums are a multi-billion dollar industry and are ~20% of species, Tilapia is 3rd most important aquacultured fish-nearly 2,000,000 metric tons

Part of Atherinomorpha & Cichliformes

Synbranchiformes

4 families, 141 species, United by the Presence of Parasphenoid Teeth (Roof of Mouth)

Part of Atherinomorpha

Synbranchidae

28 species, Freshwater, tropics and subtropics, Eel-like and most can breathe air, absorb oxygen from lining of mouth / pharynx, Lack pectoral fins, pelvic fins, scales, swimbladder

Part of Atherinomorpha & Synbranchiformes

Anabatiformes

8 families, 282 species

Part of Atherinomorpha

Channidae

60 species, Freshwater, Africa and Asia, Superficially similar to Amia, Breathe air with gills and air chambers, Highly invasive

Part of Atherinomorpha & Anabatiformes

Osphronemidae

37 species, Freshwater, Asia, Many with elongate pelvic fins, Some mouth brooders and bubble nest

builders (Betta), Lung-like labyrinth organ allows to gulp air

Part of Atherinomorpha & Anabatiformes

Carangiformes

35 families, 1,108 species, this family is open water and benthic dwelling, forming nearly 10% of US commercial fishery catch or a 500 million dollar industry

Part of Atherinomorpha

Pleuronectidae

65 species, Lay on side of body, bottom-side eye moved to top side, Long dorsal and anal fins, Eggs float in the midwater until larvae develop and sink to bottom, Commercially important, Lots of modifications associated with head, All flatfishes have eye migration, but it can be controlled, Fossil flatfishes described in 2012 demonstrate intermediate forms, Somehow, the strongest evidence for flatfish relatives is from the skull

RIGHT SIDE

Part of Atherinomorpha & Carangiformes

Paralichthyidae

66 species, Lay on side of body, bottom-side eye moved to top side, Long dorsal and anal fins, Eggs float in the midwater until larvae develop and sink to bottom, Commercially important, Lots of modifications associated with head, All flatfishes have eye migration, but it can be controlled, Fossil flatfishes described in 2012 demonstrate intermediate forms, Somehow, the strongest evidence for flatfish relatives is from the skull

LEFT SIDE

Part of Atherinomorpha & Carangiformes

Echeneidae

8 species, Modified dorsal fin, oval and sucker-like, Spend majority of life clinging to other organisms, Thought to feed on loose skin and ectoparasites but also particulate matter from host’s meals, The disk is made up of stout, flexible membranes that can be raised and lowered to generate suction, By sliding backward, the remora can increase the suction, or it can release itself by swimming forward

Part of Atherinomorpha & Carangiformes

Istiophoridae

10 species, 2 dorsal fins,

Part of Atherinomorpha & Carangiformes

Xiphiidae

1 species, longer “nose”

Labriformes

7 families, 894 species, Marine, worldwide, tropical to cold water, One freshwater species (Cheimarrichthys), A lot of variation, few groups studied outside of Labridae, Labrids have many adaptations, “labriform’ pectoral swimming, specialized jaw feeding, antifreeze proteins, mucous cocoons, have labriform motion, which is dominated by pectoral flapping

Part of Atherinomorpha

Labridae

690 species, Tropical/subtropical Atlantic, Indian, Pacific, Most smaller, with thick lips, protractile mouths, and pharyngognathus feeding, Sexually Dimorphic and some species capable of switching sexes, Many species with brood care behavior, Been recorded using large rocks as anvils to open hard-shelled prey, Wrasses have labriform motion, which is dominated by pectoral flapping, Major producer of tropical sand

Part of Atherinomorpha & Labriformes

Pharyngognathous feeding

fused lower jaw and muscularly suspended upper jaw allows for unprecedented food manipulation (also found in cichlids, embiotocids (surf perches), pomacentrids (damselfishes & clownfishes), and the centrogenyids (false scorpionfishes))

Part of Atherinomorpha & Labriformes

Uranoscopidae

59 species, Marine, worldwide, Top-mounted eye and large upturned mouth, Ambush predators that bury into sand, Venomous, Capable of stunning fishes through venomous stings of electrocution, Lure prey in for rapid capture

Part of Atherinomorpha & Labriformes

Percomorpha(Perch like fish)

17 families

Centrarchiformes

21 families, 305 species

Part of Percomorpha

Cirrhitidae

35 species, Marine, tropical, coral reefs in Atlantic, Indian, and Pacific, Perch on rocks, coral, substrates, Cirri on ends of dorsal-fin ray, Darting and ‘perchy’ that have a ton of eye movement and free pectoral rays that help with gripping on rocks

Part of Percomorpha & Centrarchiformes

Centarchidae

43 species, Freshwater, North America, Most species are nest builders, Male guards eggs, Many sport fish, Great fossil record, Up to 3.3 feet long, Subgroup paedomorphic, Complex nest building and egg protection

Part of Percomorpha & Centrarchiformes

Percichthyidae

Temperate Basses — southern hemisphere “centrarchids”

Acropomatiformes

20 families, 313 species, Marine fish group, Individually and as a group poorly studied, Species equally divided among deep-sea, coral reefs, and nearshore environments, Many groups bioluminescent, Species equally divided among deep-sea, coral reefs, & nearshore environments

Pempheridaedae

85 species, Tropical marine, western Atlantic and Indo-Pacific, Deeply keeled with compressed bodies like a hatchetfish, Some species with photophores, believed to be used for counterillumination, Shallow water schooling fish, noctural

Part of Percomorpha & Acropomatiformes

Polyprionidae

2 species, Deepwater, marine, Inhabit caves and

shipwrecks, Prominent spiny fin rays, Commercially harvested in the mediterranean

Part of Percomorpha & Acropomatiformes

Stereolepididae – Giant sea bass

an example of a predominantly US fish threatened by overfishing - Critically Endangered, 7-10 years before first reproduction

Part of Percomorpha & Acropomatiformes

Acropomatidae

13 species, Deep-sea temperate and tropical oceans, Light-emitting organs on undersides

Part of Percomorpha & Acropomatiformes

Perciformes

58 families, >3,500 species

Part of Percomorpha

Serranidae

106 species, Marine, Robust with large mouths and small gill covering spines, Carnivorous, ambush predators, feed on fish and crustaceans, Most protogynous hermaphrodites (female to male change)

Part of Percomorpha & perciformes

Epinephelidae

176 species, Historically grouped with serranids up up until the last 5 years, Stout body not built for fast swimming, Large mouth, Some species large, Atlantic goliath grouper (Epinephelus itajara) has been measured close to 900lbs, Juveniles often more brightly colored than adults

Part of Percomorpha & perciformes

Grammistidae

35 species, Historically grouped with serranids up up until the last 5 years, Atlantic and Indo Pacific marine, nocturnal, reef dwelling, Toxic, soapy-lathering mucus from their skin

Part of Percomorpha & perciformes

Percidae

248 species, Northern hemisphere, fresh and brackish waters, Stout body not built for fast swimming, these fish are common game species, Majority of the species are small darters, Possess a type of alarm chemical similar to schreckstoff

Part of Percomorpha & perciformes

Zoarcoidei–Eel-like fishes

14 families, >400 species Marine habitats, Northern Hemisphere shallow and deep sea everywhere, in varied habitats

Part of Percomorpha & perciformes

Zoarcidae

317 species, Marine, bottom dwelling, mainly northern hemisphere, Species body size generally decreases with depth, Elongate body with relatively small heads, Absent/small scales, Can slip through nets while sampling, so little is known about many of them, First hydrothermal vent fishes thought to be cuskeels, but were this species

Part of Percomorpha, perciformes, and Zoarcoidei

Zoarcidae-wolfeels

5 species, Marine, Arctic, North Pacific, North Atlantic, Predators, modified teeth to eat sea urchins and mollusks, Elongate, compressed, eel-like bodies, Males guard eggs for 3-9 months until hatching

Part of Percomorpha, perciformes, and Zoarcoidei

Pholidae & Stichaeidae

15 & 39 species, Both marine, littoral / intertidal zone fishes, Both possess elongate compressed bodies, Both have elongate dorsal fins, but those of stichaeidae are spiny

Part of Percomorpha, perciformes, and Zoarcoidei

Psychrolutidae

216 species, Mostly marine, temperate waters in mostly northern hemisphere, Many tadpole shaped with loose skin and eyes high on head, Usually with large pectoral fins and lacking scales(Includes the blobfish Sculpin)

Part of Percomorpha & perciformes

Cottidae

118 species, Used to be grouped with Psychrolutidae until recently, Most are freshwater in the temperate areas of the Northern Hemisphere, Most small, perch on the bottom substrate, Most lack a swim bladder

Part of Percomorpha & perciformes

Liparidae

466 species, Marine fishes found worldwide and range in depth from shallow water / coastal to the deep sea, Range in reproduction. One mouth- brooder, many lay adhesive eggs on crab gills, Pelvic fins modified into sucking disc in many near-shore species, Drazen predicted fishes could go as deep as 25,000 feet, limited by TMAO & Calcium

2018 Hadal Snailfish is currently the deepest dwelling fish – 24,557 feet

Part of Percomorpha & perciformes

Cyclopteridae

32 species, Cold-water marine fishes from the Arctic, North Atlantic, North Pacific, Round body with modified pelvic fins evolved into adhesive discs, Many species with spiny tubercles, Poor swimmers, lack a swim bladder, mainly benthic

Part of Percomorpha & perciformes

Gasterosteidae

21 species, Marine, brackish, freshwater in Northern Hemisphere, Small, to 6-8 inches, Males build nests, Important model organisms for studies involving: evolution, genetics, ethology, and physiology

Parallel evolution in Sticklebacks in freshwater vs. marine, Marine have lots of plates, freshwater have few plates

Part of Percomorpha & perciformes

Scorpaenidae

388 species, Marine, widespread tropical and temperate but mainly Pacific and Indian Oceans, Include some of the worlds most venomous species, Sting via sharp spines coated with venomous mucus often on the dorsal, anal, and pelvic fins in many species, Most species with internal fertilization

Adaptive radiation of Rockfishes off of Pacific Coast of North America, Venomous Lionfishes – Pterois volitans and Pterois miles invasive in Florida

Part of Percomorpha & perciformes

Synanceiidae

142 species,Includes the most venomous fish in the world, Most species marine from the Indo-Pacific, Have the most potent neurotoxins of all fish venoms secreted from glands at base of dorsal fins, Also possess lachrymal saber, revised to include many formerly recognized families(united by presence of a lachrymal saber)

Part of Percomorpha & perciformes

Lachrymal saber

includes the multiplication of jaw muscles, more ligaments, and bone modifications, Locking mechanism works like a ratchet and pawl system

Integumentary sheath

way to deliver venom from glands by the use of spines, once the skin is broken this pushes the venom out/through

Triglidae

180 species, Marine, demersal, shallow down to 200 m, Snout often with paired rostral projections, bodies stiff/bony, Lower 3 rays of their enlarged pectoral fins are free of fin membrane, used for walking on the sea floor

Part of Percomorpha & perciformes

Agonidae

49 species, Marine, temperate Northern Hemisphere, benthic fishes. Most species deep sea with a few shallow coastal, Elongate bodies covered in bony plates, Lack swim bladder

Part of Percomorpha & perciformes

Notothenioidei- Antarctic Icefishes

9 families, >160 species

Part of Percomorpha & perciformes

Pseudaphritidae - Catadromous Icefishes

1 species, FRESHWATER, Invasion into Antarctica around 50 MA

Part of Percomorpha, perciformes, & Notothenioidei

Channichthyidae - Crocodile Icefishes

21 species, Marine, Southern Ocean, Only known verts to lack hemoglobin as adults, Oxygen carrying capacity ~10% compared to relatives with hemoglobin, Oxygen transported through body via plasma, Low metabolic rates, High oxygen in water, Originally believed to be advantageous because hemoglobin not necessary at these temperatures, Fishes have large hearts & capillaries, high blood volume and dense nets of blood vessels, Later shown to be genetic mutation

Part of Percomorpha, perciformes, & Notothenioidei

Polar Fishes

Fishes with anti-freeze proteins, Antifreeze proteins allow fishes to survive down to -2.5°C, Many evolutions of antifreeze proteins in fishes and other metazoans, Two evolutions of glycoproteins, Discovered by Art DeVries in 1960s

Uniformly cold, near or below freezing, Areas between 50° & 70° around Antarcitica and between 70° & 80° in Arctic Ocean, >620 polar marine species in more than 60 families, Many overlapping groups, often with deep-sea forms

Southern Ocean

One of the most diverse groups in this ocean, Fewer species, lots of endemism, Surrounded by 900 km of open ocean, Separated by distance, depth, and thermal barrier, Antarctica in current position for 25 million years, ~300 species

Icefishes cannot tolerate modest temperature rises, Highly specialized/adapted fishes highly constrained, Even as little as 2–3°C rise will be fatal, Some can move into deeper water, but not all of them

Arctic Ocean

More species (less area), less endemism, More islands, Less geographic isolation, Younger (3-5 million years), Impacted by freshwater fishes,~360 Species

Acanthuriformes

30 families, >1,500 species, Marine and freshwater, These are most coral reef fishes, Worldwide, but not in cold environments, Popular in aquarium trade (surgeonfishes, angelfishes, butterflyfishes, etc.), Commercially important (snappers, grunts, porgies, etc.), Important model organisms, 93% of coral reef fishes are percomorphs

Part of Percomorpha

Acanthuridae

85 species, Marine, tropical, near coral reefs, One or more scalpel-like modified bony elements on either side of the caudal peduncle, Small mouths, graze on algae, Popular in the aquarium trade, Spines growing out of vertebral elements that they use offensively (NOT venomous)

Part of Percomorpha & Acanthuriformes

Chaetodontidae

137 species, Marine, tropical, near coral reefs, Similar in morphology to angelfishes (Pomacanthidae) but lack preopercle spines and with mouths often lower on face, Tend to be brightly colored, Popular in the aquarium trade, this fish uses the lateral line system to ‘hear’ via laterophysic connection

Part of Percomorpha & Acanthuriformes

Pomacanthidae

90 species, Marine, tropical, near coral reefs, Similar in morphology to butterflyfishes (Chaetodontidae) but posses preopercle spines and with mouths more central on face, Tend to be brightly colored, Popular in the aquarium trade

Part of Percomorpha & Acanthuriformes

Zanclidae

1 species, Closely related to Acanthuridae (tangs and surgeonfishes), Eat sponges, Many extinct species in this family, Difficult to maintain in captivity

Part of Percomorpha & Acanthuriformes

Moronidae

6 species, Freshwater and coastal waters of North America, Compressed bodies with large mouths, Include commercially important and popular game fish, Also include the White Perch (Morone americana), considered a nuisance species in NE

Part of Percomorpha & Acanthuriformes

Sciaenidae

301 species, Worldwide, marine and freshwater, typically benthic carnivores, Commercially important fish (especially some of the marine species) with up to 780,000 tonnes caught between 2000-2009, So-named because of their ability to make drumming sounds using muscles attached to their swim bladders

Part of Percomorpha & Acanthuriformes

Lutjanidae-Snappers

139 species, Mostly marine, tropical, subtropical, and warm temperate, Carnivorous (as opposed to herbivorous like angel and butterfly fishes), Large mouth and eyes with fusiform bodies, Extremely important food fish in commercial fisheries, highly regulated in some areas

Snappers and tons of other intermediate to higher predators can carry Ciguatera toxins - diatoms > seaweed> herbivore> carnivore> human, Can be found in barracudas, snappers, parrotfishes, groupers, triggerfishes, jacks, etc.

Part of Percomorpha & Acanthuriformes

Syngnathiformes

10 families, 699 species

Part of Percomorpha

Callionymidae

201 species, Warmer waters, Primarily Indo-Pacific, but also in Atlantic Ocean, Benthic, occasionally deep water, Popular in aquarium trade, One of a few fish groups that has blue & green pigments

Part of Percomorpha & Syngnathiformes

Syngnathidae

344 species, Primarily marine, some freshwater & brackish, Found in every ocean, Shallow, warm waters, Popular in aquarium trade, one species w/ remarkable adaptations, Tremendous Shape, Fringe, and Color Variation, Bodies covered in armor, Often Credited with “Male Birth”

Part of Percomorpha & Syngnathiformes

Mullidae

109 species, Marine, worldwide, Shallow, tropical & subtropical waters, Important food fish, Historically, critical food fish, Popular in early Western art, Up to two feet long, Barbels Taste for Food, Important in Early Mediterranean

Part of Percomorpha & Syngnathiformes

Centriscidae

13 species, Marine, worldwide, shallow, tropical & subtropical waters, Compressed, razor-like bodies, Long snout, small mouth, pincer-like teeth, No lateral line, Swim vertically oriented

Part of Percomorpha & Syngnathiformes

Scombriformes

16 families, 290 species, Almost exclusively marine pelagic fishes — Authors named it Pelagia, Pelagic Characteristic Unites this Unusual Group, Only thing linking them, so far, is the open water environment

Oilfish (Ruvettius)

Often Mislabeled as Tuna, cause GI problems

Toxotidae

9 species, Mostly freshwater, India, Sri Lanka, SE Asia, N Australia, Shoot prey using water from specialized mouth, Deep, laterally compressed bodies

Part of Atherinomorpha & Carangiformes

Sphyraenidae

26 species, Mostly marine, tropical and subtropical worldwide, Topwater predatory fishes, Elongate bodies, large mouths, fang-like teeth, Can grow over 5 ft, mostly target “shiny” prey

Part of Atherinomorpha & Carangiformes

Carangidae

119 species, Marine, Atlantic, Indian, Pacific Oceans, Open ocean and topwaters above reefs, Most fast swimming predatory, Many species commercially important, Some jacks are venomous

Part of Atherinomorpha & Carangiformes

The Open Sea

Epipelagic (0-600 ft), Upper 200m of ocean worldwide, Huge environment, More than 15 invasions (sharks, tunas, herrings, etc.), representing just 328 species, Commercially critical, nearly 50% of all food fishes, Driven by incredible nutrient richness, Counter shading - nearly universal color pattern (dark on top, light underside), Highly forked, high aspect ratio tails, Thunniform pelagic locomotion, Caudal peduncle narrow, small keels, Stiff fin spines, Dorsal and anal finlets, Pectoral groove

Tremendous increase in red muscle associated with continuous swimming, Endothermy - brain heaters for better hunting, Convergence is common

Hydrodynamic Efficiency

Schooling in perfect ‘crystal lattice’ provides tremendous (65% greater) efficiency if neighbors 0.3-0.4 body lengths apart & 5 body lengths behind

Fish Conservation Threats

>2,500 threatened fishes, 30% of cartilaginous fishes threatened, 20% of freshwater fishes threatened, 35% of commercial fishes threatened, Same biodiversity loss: Habitat loss & modification, Species introductions, Pollution, Commercial exploitation, and Climate Change

Extinction in Fishes

extinction is currently a freshwater problem

Threatened: Madagascar’s Freshwater Fishes

Habitat destruction tremendous, Approximately 70% of freshwater species in Madagascar threatened