Structured Observation:

Types

• Natural Observation: Observing behavior without manipulation.

• Field Experiment: Manipulating variables and observing differences

Key Components

1. Explicit rules and standardization.

2. Observation schedule defining who/what will be observed and how.

3. Trained observers and clear categories for coding behaviors.

Observation Methods:

• Counting incidents or waiting for specific incidents.

• Time and timing: Continuous monitoring or time sampling

Data

• Captures behaviors but not attitudes or personal data.

• Yields variables for statistical analysis.

Advantages over Survey Research:

• Overcomes problems like social desirability, memory issues, and meaning interpretation.

• Provides more reliable measures of behaviors.

• Offers greater precision and accuracy in recording behaviors and events.

Ethical Considerations:

• Covert observation may be necessary but raises ethical concerns.

• Informed consent may be violated in covert observation.

• Disclosure after the fact is an ethical fallback for covert observation.

Reliability and Validity:

• Challenges include inter- and intra-observer reliability.

• Measurement validity ensures observations align with research goals.

Reactive Effects:

• Participants may change their behaviour due to awareness of being observed.

• Different types of reactive effects include role selection and researcher presence.

Unstructured Observation:

• It involves no formalized rules, which are often used in ethnography.

• Ethnography includes participant observation and in-depth interviews.

• Researcher immerses in a social setting for an extended period.

Access and Data Collection:

• Access to closed settings often requires a sponsor and approval from gatekeepers.

• Data collection involves various types of note-taking, including mental notes, jotted notes, and analytic memos.