Structured Observation:
Structured Observation:
Types:
Natural Observation: Observing behavior without manipulation.
Field Experiment: Manipulating variables and observing differences.
Key Components:
Explicit rules and standardization.
Observation schedule defining who/what will be observed and how.
Trained observers and clear categories for coding behaviors.
Observation Methods:
Counting incidents or waiting for specific incidents.
Time and timing: Continuous monitoring or time sampling.
Data:
Captures behaviors but not attitudes or personal data.
Yields variables for statistical analysis.
Advantages over Survey Research:
Overcomes problems like social desirability, memory issues, and meaning interpretation.
Provides more reliable measures of behaviors.
Offers greater precision and accuracy in recording behaviors and events.
Ethical Considerations:
Covert observation may be necessary but raises ethical concerns.
Informed consent may be violated in covert observation.
Disclosure after the fact is an ethical fallback for covert observation.
Reliability and Validity:
Challenges include inter- and intra-observer reliability.
Measurement validity ensures observations align with research goals.
Reactive Effects:
Participants may change their behaviour due to awareness of being observed.
Different types of reactive effects include role selection and researcher presence.
Unstructured Observation:
It involves no formalized rules, which are often used in ethnography.
Ethnography includes participant observation and in-depth interviews.
Researcher immerses in a social setting for an extended period.
Access and Data Collection:
Access to closed settings often requires a sponsor and approval from gatekeepers.
Data collection involves various types of note-taking, including mental notes, jotted notes, and analytic memos.