international organisations and global governance

The argument that international organisations act as "problem solvers" in international politics

Susan Park (2019), who introduces IOs as institutional actors designed to address systemic global problems

Multi-level Governance (as applied to the European Union).

A system where authority and policy-making are shared across subnational, national, and supranational levels, making the EU function as a unique "supranational federation" rather than a traditional state or standard IO

The Russia-Ukraine War (Critical Theory interpretation).

It views the conflict not just as a security dilemma, but as a clash heavily rooted in deeply embedded state identities, historical power interests, and a direct challenge by Russia against the Western-centric liberal world order.

NATO's 1999 Bombing of Kosovo & 2008 Russo-Georgian War.

Critical historical flashpoints that directly undermined NATO-Russia relations, accelerating Russia's shift from cooperative diplomacy in the late 1990s to open, aggressive geopolitical confrontation.