Behavioral Ecology

FOXP2 Gene

Highly conserved in evolutionary tree

Codes for transcription factor that effects other genes

Linked to language ability

When individuals have a damaged or missing copy, they experience language deficits

Human Language Causation Study

Plomin et al. 1997

Measuring ability in verbal and spatial language tests of parents v offspring (housed together), parents v offspring (housed apart, isolating genetic component), and adoptive parents v adopted offspring (isolating environmental component)

→ Language abilities have a strong genetic component

Broca’s Aphasia

Spontaneous speech and speech motor control defecits

Wernicke’s Aphasia

Speech comprehension defecit

What areas of the brain are associated with speech? How?

Broca’s and Wernicke’s areas, damage or loss enables opportunistic study of imporance

Human Language Ontogeny Study

Johnson and Newport 1989

Acquiring second language declines with age

Sensitive period for language acquisition seems to end around 7 years old

Languages acquired based on environment

Brain Tissue takes _ energy to maintain than muscles

16 times more

How may language have evolved to justify the energy cost of increased brain maintenance?

Language transfers useful information to kin and non-kin

How does language contribute to human group behavior?

Language dialects signal group membership

Language use conveys identity, origin, and social status

Humans unconsciously mimic the linguistic patterns of people around them

Humans can consciously manipulate language to alter their secondary language signals

Phylogenetic Comparisons with Human Language

Human language more complete than other species

Chimpanzees and other species acquire rudiments of language after extensive training

Close species do not have the structural ability to produce human speech but some birds can

Degree of comprehension of human language among animals is unclear*

Confounding Variables in Studying Human Mate Choice

Cultural differences

Birth control/contraceptives

Environmental factors

Biological Basis of Mate Choice in Humans

Women are typical female mammals

Males limited by female physiology and psychology

Human Relationship between Physical Traits and Reproductive Success Study

Prokop and Fedor 2011

→Single men are less attractive than married men

→Single men are shorter than married men

→Single men have poorer reproductive success than married men

Human Association Between Strength and Facial Attractiveness Study

Fink et al. 2007

Men with best handgrip strength are rated as more attractive

→Attraction to male traits associated with power may result from fitness increase as powerful men are able to protect partners and supply resources due to high social status

Human Reproductive Success versus Male Wealth Study

Mulder 1987

Studied lifetime reproductive success of men in Kenya compared to the number of acres they owned per wife

→Women have higher reproductive success when married to wealthy husbands

Studied probability of any given child being ill per visit compared to number of acres owned per wife

→Offspring have better health when father is wealthy

Human Trait Value Study

Li et al. 2002

Gave participants a point budget to select traits of an ideal partner

Men put 21% of budget into attractiveness, Women put 10%

Men put 3% of budget into income, Women put 17%

Sex based preference gap was highest when points budget is low

→ Females value resources more, Males value attractiveness more

In Singapore women value social level more and men value physical attractiveness more as well

Human Female Self-Perception Mate Choice Study

Buston and Emlen 2003

→Women with a higher self-perceptionhave a stronger preference for mates with better traits

Human Mate-Choice Copying Study

Waynforth 2007

Had women rate the attractiveness of a photo of a man

Showed women photo of man with either a low, medium, or highly attractive woman

Women’s impression of a man’s attractiveness increased in the man’s initial attractiveness was low when depicted with a woman, with the most change with a highly attractive woman

Women’s impression of a man’s attractiveness decreased for initially medium or highly attractive men depicted with low or medium attractive women

→ Human females are more attracted to a man associated with a ‘high value’ woman, indicating human mate-choice copying

Human Women’s Physical Indications of Fertility

Lower waist to hip ratio

Higher breast to waist ratio

Human Female Association Between Figure and Fertility Study

Jasienska et al. 2004

Studied the concentration of salivary oestradiol (fertility hormone) in women with a large or small breasts and a narrow or broad waste

Women with a narrow waist and large breasts had higher concentrations of salivary oestradiol

→ Males may be attracted to large breasts and narrow waists due to their indication of the fertility of a female

Human Male Brain Recognition of Female Figure Ratio Study

Platek and Singh 2010

Changes in waist hip ratio activated anterior paracingulate gyrus of men

Human Male Detection of Ovulation from Odor Study

Singh and Bronstad 2001

Had women wear shirts for multiple days at different parts of their menstruation cycle and then had male participants blindly sniff shirts

Males preferred scents of shirts worn during ovulation

→ Men can likely detect and prefer differences in scent due to increased fertility

Human Male Detection of Ovulation from Voice Study

Recorded women speaking at different parts of their menstrual cycle

Women have slightly higher pitch during ovulation

Men rate voices during ovulation as more attractive

→Men are able to detect and are attracted to tonal changes associated with ovulation likely due to increased fertility

Human Mate Infidelity Study

Winking et al. 2007

The proportion of men having an affair per year decreases and number of dependents increase

→ Men are less likely to have an affair with more dependents, potentially due to demonstrated reproductive success

Human Mate Sexual Conflict Study

Buss and Schmitt 1993

Over a span of time men ideally prefer to have more sexual partners than women

→ Men may be more interested in acquiring additional sexual partners than women

83% of studied preindustrial societies allowed multiple wives

Over a span of time men are more quick to opt to have intercourse with a woman, generally showing higher probability

Human Willingness to Reproduce with Stranger Study

Clark and Hatfield 1989

Had an attractive member of the opposite sex proposition either men or women on the street

0% of women said yes, 75% of men said yes

→ Women are likely less inclined to practice sex with a man they don’t know well due to a higher reproductive risk to women resulting from copulation

Human Infidelity Preference Study

Wiederman and Kendall 1999

Asked participants whether they found the idea of their partner exhibiting emotional or sexual infidelity more troubling

63% of women were more concerned about emotional infidelity, 62% of men were more concerned about sexual infidelity

→ Women may be less concerned about sexual infidelity due to biological insurance that offspring she is raising are her own

Habitat Choice

Where animals distribute themselves in space and time with respect to resources in their environment

Ideal Free Distribution

Predicts how animals should first settle into habitats

Predicts equilibrium frequency of individuals in different patches

→ Where individuals moving between habitat 1 and habitat 2 would suffer a reduced payoff→ Resources in Habitat 1/Individuals in Habitat 1= Resources in Habitat 2/Individuals in Habitat 2 (Resource Matching Rule)

Assumes all individuals are counted, individuals are free-moving, and there are no costs to movement (never the case irl)

Tends to accurately predict the distribution of animals in a controlled setting

Ideal Free Distribution in Sticklebacks Study

Milinski 1979

Pumped differing amount of food species (Daphnia sp.) into opposing sides of a tank full of stickleback

Stickleback demonstrated IFD distribution, with equal proportions of population to food

Ideal Free Distribution in Ducks Study

Harper 1982

Bread thrown to ducks at opposing sides of pond

Ducks divided attention to food in IFD ratio

Disease Risk Effect on Habitat Choice Study

Koesecker and Skelly 2000

Gray treefrogs can contract a deadly parasite from American ribbed fluke snail

Number of treefrog eggs deposited in habitat was measured where snails were not present, in different concentrations, or infected or uninfected with the parasite

Frogs deposited many more eggs in area with no snails than other habitat

Frogs deposited no eggs in areas with infected snails

Frogs deposited eggs in higher concentrations when snails were uninfected and at low concentration than at high concentration

→ Gray treefrogs avoid habitat shared with a species that may infect them

→ Gray treefrogs may be sensitive to detecting whether a snail is infected

Territoriality

Occupation and defense of a particular area

Territory size is influenced by _.

The types and strengths of costs and benefits available in potential territories

Territoriality in Chimpanzees Study

Goodall 1986

Participants were either single individuals, related individuals, or unrelated individuals

Chimpanzees risk lives patrolling and fighting to expand and defend territory

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Learning Territoriality Study

Stamps 1987

Presented a lizard with two potential territories, one containing a conspecific, and then removed the conspecific and allowed the lizard to explore the territories

Lizard approached the territory previously containing a conspecific more quickly and spent more time there over multiple days

→ Lizards learn territory value from conspecific, likely because in the wild, presence of a conspecific in a territory indicates resources valuable to an individuals niche

Satellites

Conspecifics of a territory owner that are tolerated on their territory

Satellites in Pied Wagtails Study

Davies and Houston 1981

Pied Wagtails were observed in their foraging territories and satellites were counted, defense of the territory by satellites was also measured

→ Satellites contributed to defense of territory

→ Satellites were tolerated when food was abundant but not when it was limited

An example of conditional cooperation

Territorial Dynasties in Florida Scrub Jay Study

Woolfenden and Fitzpatrick 1978

Over time, individuals maintained and grew territories

An example of territorial budding

Types of Migration

Obligatory

Irruptive

Select

Obligatory Migration

Where migration reliably occurs in a species during a measurable cycle

Irruptive Migration

Where migration in a species does not reliably occur but will occur if certain conditions are met

Select Individual Migration

Where a species as a whole is not migratory but some individuals or populations are

Monarch Migration Navigation Study

Perez et al. 1997

Monarchs were allowed to remain outside, remained inside for a period of time with a simulated sun cycle matching outdoors, or remained inside for a period of time with a sun cycle moved later by 6 hours

The sun’s location in the sky indicates direction differently based on time of day

Monarchs exposed to later sun cycle flew in a different direction

→ Monarchs use a time-compensated sun compass to navigate

Indigo Bunting Migration Navigation Study

Emlen 1975

Buntings were places in a planetarium in an Emlen Funnel which clearly demonstrates area where the bird travels through scratches

When the planetarium depicted a spring star map, the birds attempted to move north

When the planetarium depicted a fall star map, the birds generally attempted to move south

When no stars were shown the birds did not move in a specific direction

→ The Indigo Bunting uses stars to navigate

Bobolink Migration Navigation Study

Beason and Nichols 1984

Bobolinks migrate a 12,400 round trip and may demand a complex navigation system

When shown correct visual star patterns, the bird was correctly oriented

When shown correct visual star patterns, and given correct magnetic polarity cues, the bird was correctly oriented

When shown correct visual star patterns, and given incorrect magnetic polarity cues, the bird was not correctly oriented

→ The Bobolink primarily navigates with magnetic cues during migration

→ Magnetic substances in olfactory nerves and bristles projecting into nasal cavity make up system that can detect cues from Earth’s magnetic field

German Black-Cap Migration Heritability Study

Pulido et al. 2001

Measured time of displayed migratory restlessness in captive German Black-cap

Restlessness way delayed by 7.65 days in the second generation

Heritability of migration instinct was determined to be .72

→ German black-caps demonstrate a high degree of inherited migration instinct in the absence of migrational cues/ability to migrate

Immune Function of Migrants Study

Moller and Erritzoe 1988

Measured volume of organs (bursa and spleen) associated with immune function in resident and migratory birds of close relation

Migratory birds exhibited greater bursa and spleen volumes

→ Migratory birds have more robust immune systems, likely due to migratory exposure to differing pathogens and the need to maintain health during migration

Migration Phylogeny Study

Outlaw and Voelker 2006

Asked what factors predict evolution of migration

Studied migration habits of many related birds with differing environmental conditions

→Species in higher altitudes are more likely to migrate

Asked what the ancestral state of migration is

→ ancestrally the Pipit birds were likely sedentary

Anthropogenic Conservation Issues Surrounding Migration

Light pollution can inhibit navigation by stars

Barriers can cut off individuals from migration routes

Habitat destruction can result in migration to now non-existent habitat

Climate change and anthropogenic expansion can alter migration cues

Migrating species require monitoring and conservation efforts across range

How is information transferred within and between generations?

Genetics

Cultural Transmission

Cultural Transmission

Transfer of information that affects an individual’s phenotype by means of:

Social learning

or

Teaching

Social Learning

Learning via observation of others

Cultural Transmission in Macaques Example

Imo (1 yo macaque) developed skill for watching sweet potatoes and wheat that were scattered on the beach

Other members of Imo’s troupe learned washing behavior from watching Imo

Cultural Transmission in Norway Rats Study

Galef and White 1997

Norway rats are faster to find food if they observe a conspecific eating it first

Information: Food location and edibility

Phenotype: Eating behavior

Social Learning: Observation of conspecific

Importance of Cultural Transmission

Information can be spread through individuals beyond offspring

Information transfer occurs more quickly than reproduction or genetic selection

Social Learning Human Example

Bandura et al. 1961

Children observed adults behaving either violently or calmly toward a toy clown

→When permitted to play, children tended to imitate the behavior they had observed

Types of Social Learning

Imitation

Copying

Imitation

Acquisition of a novel response through observation of a demonstrator performing that response

• New behavior learned

• Involves spatial manipulation

• Achieves a goal

Imitation in Blue Tits Study

Fisher and Hinde 1949

Blue tits had learned to puncture foil on milk bottle deliveries to drink milk

Behavior transmitted through learning the new behavior from conspecifics

Imitation in Budgerigars Study

Galef et al. 1986

Observing budgie watched a demonstrator either lift a lid with their foot or bill

Observers were more likely to lift the lid in the way the demonstrator did

Budgie did not have a predisposition to a certain strategy but instead learned how to remove lid from conspecific →imitation

Physiology of Imitation Study

Molenberghs et al. 2012

In rhesus macaques, neurons in the F5 premotor area are active when observing or performing a behavior

Copying

Observer repeats what it has seen a demonstrator do

• New behavior does not need to be learned

• Achievement of goal

Copying in Mice Study

Kavaliers et al. 1999

Prior to fly exposure mice do not respond to fly bites

Unexposed mice who observe a demonstration of a mouse being bitten and then burying itself will then bury itself after seeing a fly

If an inhibitor (NPC) is applied (to the NMDA receptor) before the behavior is observed, the observer does not bury itself

→ Inhibition of the NMDA receptor preventing the intake of a behavior supports claim that this behavior is learned

Mate-choice Copying in Guppies Study

Dugatkin 1992

Focal female placed in a tank between two males, with a model female placed towards one of the males

Focal female tended to switch initial choice to follow model female demonstration compared to control

Female guppies are inclined to select with males of oranger coloration, which is a heritable trait

When the males in the experiment had a different amount of orange coloration and the model was always positioned near the male with less orange, the focal female would choose the model’s selection most of the time until there was a 40% difference in coloration the time

→ Both genetic and social cues influence female guppy mate choice, but they demonstrate a significant degree of mate-choice copying

Mate-choice Copying

An individual copies mate choice of a conspecific

Modes of Cultural Transmission

Vertical

Oblique

Horizontal

Vertical Cultural Transmission

Information transferred across generations from parents to offspring

ex. beaching and sponging in dolphins tends to be exhibited in calves whose mothers practiced these behaviors

Oblique Cultural Transmission

Information transferred from non-parental members of the parental generation but not by parents to offspring

Oblique Cultural Transmission in Macaques Study

Cook et al. 1985

Lab-raised monkeys do not exhibit hesitation towards snakes

Naive juveniles were exposed to snakes before and after watching an unrelated demonstrator show fear for snakes

Following exposure, lab-raised monkeys exhibited hesitation towards snakes, demonstrating oblique cultural transmission

If naive juveniles are exposed to a film where the demonstrator had been made to look feerful of a flower, the juvenile would not show increased fear response towards flowers

Horizontal Cultural Transmission

Information transferred among peers (members of the same generation)

Horizontal Cultural Transmission in Guppies Study

Laland & Williams 1998

Groups of similarly-aged guppies were trained to take a long or short route for food, then naive individuals would be introduced to each school, before the groups were removed and the naive individual remained alone

Untrained guppies followed the route that they had learned from demonstrators, with loyalty to long path decreasing over time → demonstrating oblique learning

Teaching

When one individual serves as instructor and another individual seves as sudent that learns from instructor. Teachers have an active role.

Teacher must:

• provide immediate benefit to student but not self

• teach naive students only

• transfer information at faster rate than student could acquire it on its own

Teaching in Meerkats Study

Thornton and McAuliffe 2006

Young meerkats cannot catch prey

At 1 month old: meerkats start following older ‘helpers’ to find food

As pups get older, helpers feed them less disabled prey and spend less time monitoring pups, pups capture more of their own food and lose less, pup handling time decreases

→ Opportunity teaching

Helpers nudge pups towards rare food items

→ Coaching

Types of Teaching

Opportunity

Coaching

Opportunity Teaching

Teachers place students in situations conducive to learning

Coaching

Teachers alter student behavior through reward or punishment

While the study of animal behavior is mainly concerned with … individuals, consevation biology is concerned with the behavior of _.

Populations

Uses of Behavior in Conservation

Estimating population size

Understanding behavioral problems

Predicting degree of risk to environmental change

Predicting introduction success

etc.

Estimating Population Size in Hyenas Study

Mills et al. 2001

Hyena calls were played to populations with various differences from the speaker and known population sizes and the number of hyenas that responded was recorded

While proximate populations didn’t always reliably respond, within 3.2 kilometers calls were returned by either the whole population or none at all, while further populations did not respond

→ Nearby populations could be reasonably counted if they respond to the calls

Understanding Behavioral Problems in Penguins Study

Fowler et al. 1995

Magellanic penguins with less than five percent oil contamination were returned to the colony after an oil spill, but didn’t reproduce successfully

Female penguins with oil exposure produced lower estradiol (sex hormone) levels

Male penguins with oil exposure produced lower levels of testosterone and DHT (necessary for reproduction)

→ Despite low exposure, penguins with oil contact exhibited low reproductive success due to effects on sex hormones

Are generalists or specialists more likely to be vulnerable to disturbance?

Specialists

Kestrel Environmental Risk Study

Temple 1984

Went from 4 Wild Mauritius Kestrels in 1974 to Endangered

Vulnerability was caused by extensive habitat destruction and introduction of predators

While kestrels previously nested in tree cavities, they shifted to nesting in hole/niches on cliffs

→ Specialist species can adapt to environmental change in some circumstances, demonstrating that they are not necessarily sentenced to extinction with severe disturbances

Whales and Noise Pollution Study

Military Sonar has been demonstrated to disrupt whales

In contact with military sonar, whales will stop feeding, swim away, or take sudden deep dives leading to mass confusion and drowning

→ Environmental threats are not always recognized

Introduction success rate is _ for species with sexually dichromatic plumage versus species with sexually monochromatic plumage

lower

Introduction Success of Bettongs Study

McLean et al. 2000

Captive Bettong populations were exposed to behavioral tests to determine whether they were equipped to survive predator exposure in the wild

Post-testing the Bettongs exhibited more vigilant behavior → in captivity, we can train animals to address natural conditions appropriately

Introduction Success of Whooping Cranes Study

Due to extremely low population size, Whooping cranes were raised in captivity

Captive whooping cranes lost migratory knowledge and lost a location as a result

By associating a flock with a light aircraft and flying the historic migration route, a new population that could retrace and pass on migratory route was founded, effectively reintroducing a population into the area

Social behaviors are effective adaptations when they

increase animal’s lifetime reproductive success

potential benefits outweigh costs

Benefits of Social Behavior

Resource acquisition: food (easier hunts, more ways to find food)

Resource acquisition: mates (finding mates, learning mating behaviors, defending mates, leks)

Resource acquisition: territory

Maintenance (allogrooming, thermoregulation)

Predator Avoidance (dilution, confusion, detection efficiency, group defense)

Costs of Social Behavior

Resource Competition: food

Resource Competition: ideal mates

Disease Risk

Predation Risk

Types of Social Interactions

Mutualism

Parasitism

Altruism

Reciprocal Altruism

Predator Avoidance: Dilution Effect

Where by being part of a larger group of potential prey, the odds of any specific individual being predated is reduced

ex. Butterfly evasion of Smooth-billed ani (Burger & Gochfeld 2001)

Predator Avoidance: Confusion Effect

Where predator’s ability to discern individual prey is reduced

Predator’s hunting efficiency decreases as school size increases

ex. Largemouth bass predation of Silvery minnows (Landeau and Terborgh 1986)

Predator Avoidance: Detection Efficiency

Individuals can rely on warning signs given by group members

ex. Meerkats, Chickens

Predator Avoidance: Group Defense

Where groups are more capable of preventing casualties by fending off predators pursuing a member

ex. mobbing ravens to drive them away from nests