Bio Unit Test

Axon Terminals

sends info to other neurons

Axon

electric energy moves down this in order for the neuron to fire

Myelin Sheath

covers the axon and is the only thing that speeds up action potential

nucleus

Control center of the neuron

cell body

contains nucleus

dendrites

receives info from other neurons

action potential

Step 1: the neurotransmitters are released from the vesicles into the synapse gap and into the receptors.
Step 2: reuptake where the pre-synaptic neuron (sending) tries to suck the neurotransmitters back up into the vesicles. This process is repetitive

vesicles

sacs that hold neurotransmitters

synapse gap

space between neurons during their connection (never touch)

receptors

"key holes" for the neurotransmitters to fit into (in dendrite)

what allows a neuron to fire?

right type of neurotransmitters and enough

neurotransmitters

chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gaps between neurons

what happens when the myelin sheath deteriorates

multiple sclerosis and Alzheimers

nerves vs neurons

nerves are a bundle of neurons

what goes on when we learn something new

plasticity (connection and disconnection of neurons)

what are 2 ways neural connections get stronger

1. neuron fires more often, more likely to stay together (long term potentiation)
2.The more that you practice a skill or work on storing a memory, not only will OLD neuron connections become stronger by firing together, but more neuron connections will also fire or be added to the pathway.

Threshold

the minimum number of excitatory neurotransmitters needed to allow a neuron to fire

All or none principle

if a neuron threshold is met (no more or less excitatory), the next neuron in the chain will fire

excitatory vs inhibitory

excitatory tells the neuron to fire; inhibitory tells the neuron not to fire

New memories, skills, or habits are formed through the connection of ______________ in the brain.

neurons

The ___________ the pathway, the more likely that information is to be remembered.

stronger

long-term potentiation

the more you rehearse something, the stronger the neural connections will be

What is the purpose of neurons?

quickly send messages throughout the body

A ____________ message is sent within a neuron.

electrical

Neurons send ___________ messages between neurons.

chemical

reuptake

where the pre-synaptic neuron (sending) tries to suck the neurotransmitters back up into the vesicles. This process is repetitive

Node of Ranvier

If there is myelin, depolarization and refractory period occur between the myelin not inside. This gap is called...

electrical process of a firing neuron

Stage 1: The RESTING potential with the +sodium ions on the outside and the -potassium ions on the inside of the axon, which is called a polarized neuron (+ on outside - on inside)
Stage 2:during ACTION potential, the stage of depolarization where the positive start entering the axon in the beginning
Stage 3: the refractory period where the positive from the beginning exit the axon and the positive on the outside enter the axon (depolarization). Then the ions inside move down
Stage 4: depolarization and refractory occur all the way down the axon

evolutionary psych

Darwin's Natural Selection: the principle that, among the range of inherited TRAITS, those that lead to increased reproduction and survival will most likely be passed on to succeeding generations

Genetic mutations

a random error in gene replication that leads to change

down syndrome

extra copy of chromosome 21 and it causes lifelong intellectual disability and development delays

Sickle Cell Anemia

healthy red blood cells are round and flexible so that they can move through the smallest blood vessels. During sickle cell disease, the hemoglobin is abnormal causing the red blood cells to be rigid and shaped like a "c" or sickle. These cells can get stuck and block flow causing a lack of oxygen to organs. Correlates to malaria because people with sickle cell can fight off Malaria better than those who don't. The sickle cell gets in the way of the parasites

neuroscience

how the body and brain enable emotions, memories, and sensory experiences

PKU (phenylketonuria)

caused by a defect in the gene that helps create the enzyme needed to break down the amino acid phenylketonuria causing that amino to build up in the body. A dangerous build up can develop when a person with PKU eats food that contains protein or artificial sweetener

DNA

DNA contains our genetic code and it is located inside chromosomes.

chromosomes

where DNA is located and there is 23 pairs (46 total) in one cell

gene

a small segment of the DNA molecule

genome

complete instructions for making an organism

Phrenology

Franz Gall believed the bumps on the skull could reveal our mental abilities and our characteristics

sensory neuron

afferent: sends messages from sense organs to brain

afferent

sends messages in the brain

efferent

send messages out the brain

motor neuron

efferent: sends messages from brain to muscles, organs and glands

interneurons

relay messages between sensory and motor neurons

Glial Cells (not neurons)

maintenance cells for the nervous system, which take away waste and supply nutrients to the nervous system

neurogenesis

the generation of brand new info. They originate deep in the brain and then migrate elsewhere

psychoactive drugs

chemicals that change the makeup chemistry of your brain. Alters state of consciousness

physiological dependence

when the body's dependent on a drug, absence of the drug may lead to cravings of physical pain

psychological dependence

absence of the drug may lead to negative emotional feelings/thoughts ("I cannot function without this")

Blood Brain Barrier

separates blood that circulates throughout the body from brain fluid in the central nervous system. The purpose is to prevent infections and toxins from entering the brain via the bloodstream

How do drugs affect neurons

They determine whether the neuron will fire or not. There are natural neurotransmitters that fit perfectly in the dendrite and this thing may affect the neurotransmitters

agonist

they mimic the effects of naturally occurring neurotransmitters. They have a similar enough structure.

antagonist drug

they cross the blood brain barrier and sit in the receptor sites, but they do not produce the same effect as agonist drugs. The natural neurotransmitters get blocked from the receptors. This results in a flood of neurotransmitters in the synapse, which produces the high

Reuptake inhibitors

overabundance of neurotransmitters in the synapse causing a flood and the high

Tolerance

the diminishing effect with regular use of the same dose of a drugs. The more one uses a drug, the higher the dosage they need to feel a similar effect

withdrawal

the discomfort and distress that follows discontinuing the use of and addictive drug

Stimulants

excite neural activity and speed up body functions +euphoria. Examples: caffeine, nicotine, cocaine, ecstasy, meth, amphetaminess

depressants

slows down the body and sense of euphoria. Linked with behavioral changes. Examples: alcohol, anxiety drugs, barbituates

Hallucinogens

drugs that distort perceptions and evoke sensory images in the absence of sensory input. Examples: LSD (acid), weed, shrooms

Opiates

agonist pain killers that mimic endorphins and provide a rush of euphoria and a relief from pain. Examples: morphine, heroin, codein

narcotics

mimic the effect of endorphins. We do not want to flood the brain with artificial opiates b/c the brain will stop producing natural ones, which leads to withdrawal

deficit

when the body is not using the drugs and there are less endorphins

reflex

automatic response to stimuli. The pain is sent to nerve in the spinal cord (not brain bc brain is too slow) which tells you to move

central nervous system

brain and spinal cord

cerebral cortex

Has Gyri (peaks of brain) and Sulci (valleys of your brain)

Peripheral Nervous System

sensory and motor neurons/pathways that are not part of the central nervous system

somatic nervous system (voluntary)

(motor pathways) controls the body's skeletal muscles

autonomic nervous system (involuntary)

(motor pathways) controls glands and muscles of our internal organs. This system may be consciously overridden, but usually operates autonomously or by itself

Sympathetic division

(autonomic) alert system which responds to stress and accelerates heart rate, blood pressure, and blood sugar

parasympathetic division

(autonomic) brakes- slows body after stressful situation

Acetylcholine (excitatory)

stimulates muscle contractions and is involved with learning and memory;
Surplus: muscle spasm;
Deficit: Alzheimer's and Dementia and paralysis

Dopamine (Excitatory)

seeks out pleasure and is involved in attention and learning Surplus: schizophrenia and addiction
Deficit: Anxiety disorders, memory problems, ADHD, Parkinson's

Serotonin (Inhibitory or Excitatory)

Regulates our MOODS (happiness/sadness/etc.), social behavior, appetite and digestion, sleep, memory, and sexual function
surplus: autism
deficit: depression, mood disorders, OCD

Norepinephrine (adrenaline) (Inhibitory or Excitatory)

arousal in the flight/fight response, Slows down metabolism surplus: anxiety, high blood pressure
deficit: mental disorders

GABA (Inhibitory)

inhibits neurons from firing and Helps regulate daily sleep-wake cycles
surplus: sleep and eating disorders
deficit: Anxiety, seizures, tremors, loss of motor control, personality changes, and insomnia

Endorphins (Inhibitory)

reduces pain, pleasure, reduction of stress
surplus: no warning of actual pain, artificial high
deficit: body experiences pain

Glutamate (excitatory)

used in memory
surplus: epileptic seizures
deficit: nothing

hormones

They are chemical messengers. They move slower in the endocrine system because it works through the bloodstream instead of neurons. released from glands in the system

EEG (electroencephalograph)

looks at levels of electrical activity in the brain and graphs them. The scalp is covered with electrodes, which can detect electricity in the brain. When it is graphed, you get waves of activity, which are brain waves.

CAT (computerized axial tomography)

(a 3D object that is sliced and then you can look at the object in a 2D structure) a structural technique that sends x-rays through at different angles (axial), which gives 2D pictures that reveal the structure

PET (positron emission tomography)

functional technique that shows a 2D slice of a 3D object. A person injects a radioactive substance (pill or injection) which goes into the bloodstream and then in the brain. The scan shows the levels of the radioactive substance, which allows us to tell how much blood activity there is in certain areas. Areas that are more active have more blood flow.

MRI (magnetic resonance imaging)

send a magnetic pulse through the brain, which causes molecules to move slightly, twist, and relax. The scan can pick up the energy that is released from this movement. Allows us to see the different areas of the brain are going to respond differently to the magnetic pulse, and then figure out structures based off difference (see structure of the brain)

fMRI (functional technique of MRI)

doctors send the magnetic pulse, but now they are looking at the response of the molecules of the hemoglobin, in the blood. So doctors are able to see different leve

DTI (Diffusion tensor imaging)

it looks at the diffusion of water throughout the brain. Water is going to be distributed throughout the brain but it is going to diffuse differently in different areas. This reveals the structures of the brain and neurons (could tell you where a bundle of nerves are depending on how the water moves though because it will not move as easily through the cell membranes)

brain lesion

naturally or experimentally caused the destruction of brain tissue

what is the brain made of?

outside is dendrites and inside is axon terminals, made up of neurons

Patient H.M.

had hippocampi removed; showed that removing hippocampi destroyed the ability to form new memories

Phineas Gage

railroad worker who survived a severe brain injury that dramatically changed his personality and behavior; case played a role in the development of the understanding of the localization of brain function

Patient HM

had hippocampi removed; showed that removing hippocampi destroyed the ability to form new memories

Roger Sperry and Michael Gazzaniga

studied split brain patients and showed that the left/right hemispheres have different functions

split brain findings

people are left with 2 separate minds who do not communicate with each other

Thyroid Gland

regulates metabolism, physical growth and development, and calcium rate

adrenal gland

regulate the fight or flight response to metabolism

testes

regulate bodily development (secondary sex development) and maintain reproductive organs in adults (produce sperm and testosterone)

Ovaries

regulate bodily development (secondary sex development) and maintain reproductive organs in adults (produce eggs, estrogen, progesterone)

pancreas

regulates level of sugar in the blood (insulin is released)

Thymus

An immune organ located near the heart. THe thymus is the site of T cell maturation and is larger in children and adolescents.

Pituitary Gland

"Master"- regulates activity of all other glands in the system. Under control of the hypothalamus and send out hormone signals to other glands

pineal gland

produces melatonin, which regulates circadian rhythms (sleep and wake cycle). Not controlled y pituitary gland

Parathyroid

in the neck; controls the calcium levels in your body, and normals the bone growth