Labeling Theory Moral Entrepreneurs

primary deviance

deviance that does not affect self-concept (e.g., shoplifting, minimal CJS involvement)

secondary deviance

deviance that results from being labeled, changes self-identity, creates self-fulfilling prophecy

edgework

voluntary high-risk activities involving threat to well-being or ordered existence (e.g., skydiving, combat)

modified labeling theory

Link et al.: socialization → beliefs about how most people treat mental patients → fear & coping strategies

coping with labels (3 strategies)

keep treatment secret, educate others, withdraw from potentially rejecting contacts

“coming out” (label resistance)

social affirmation of self in public society to resist or challenge deviant labels

moral entrepreneurs

people whose high social position gives them power to make/enforce social rules

rule creators

“crusading” reformers who try to change rules based on moral beliefs (e.g., pro-life groups)

rule enforcers

occupational enforcers of rules (e.g., judge, police); master status possible

Becker’s typology: conforming

no deviant behavior, not labeled (law-abiding)

Becker’s typology: falsely accused

following rules but accused of deviance, labeled

Becker’s typology: secret deviant

commits deviant acts but hides them, not labeled

Becker’s typology: pure deviant

engages in deviance & breaking laws/norms, labeled

moral panic (5 components)

concern, hostility, consensus, disproportionality, volatility

concern (moral panic)

heightened concern over group’s behavior, measured by polls/media/social movements

hostility (moral panic)

increased hostility, “us vs. them,” behavior seen as harmful/threatening

consensus (moral panic)

widespread agreement threat is real & caused by specific group

disproportionality (moral panic)

concern out of proportion to actual threat; exaggerated numbers

volatility (moral panic)

erupts suddenly, may lie dormant, reappear, or vanish

Devah Pager’s research

criminal justice labels + race → employment outcomes; hidden barriers

Brayne (2017)

big data & shared criminal records → cascading disadvantages across institutions

Factors enhancing decriminalization (examples)

many conventional users, less harm than criminalization, authority control, elite support, shield minors/adults, confined to private sphere, revenue, vetting, independent oversight

labeling theory (core idea)

deviance = social definition via interaction; labels → behavior & identity; labels as DV and IV

deviants vs. non-deviants

once known as deviant, separated from conventional society & given a label (junkie, thief, etc.)

stigmatization effects

can deter deviance, but early labeling theorists say sanctions increase deviance

voluntary labels challenge

edgework (Lyng) blurs voluntary/involuntary labeling boundaries

edgework skills

use individual capacities, discover performance limits, perceived as innate skill, maintain control in uncontrollable situations

edgework sensations

self-realization, self-actualization, self-determination; fear → exhilaration & omnipotence; altered consciousness; hyper-reality

critiques of labeling theory

cannot address intra-group variance, initial causes of deviance, hidden deviance, powerful deviants; mixed empirical support

Petersilia (2005, 1999, 2003)

criminal label → hidden barriers → impedes mobility & life opportunities, especially during economic downturns

Link et al. (1989) outcomes

negative consequences for social support networks, jobs, and self-esteem

intersex label resistance

challenge conventional conceptions, question expert assessments, reject diagnosis, demand equal access

gay/lesbian exclusive communities

retain customs & solidarity, call for recognition/rights, e.g., Pagoda lesbian community (no males, no non-lesbian females)

political label resistance

protesting, educational campaigns

relativist view of deviance

deviance varies across cultures; an act isn’t deviant until labeled (e.g., marital rape illegal nationally in U.S. only since 1993)

Temperance movement example

moral panic: concern (alcohol harms society), hostility (“us vs. them” drinkers), volatility (rose rapidly, faded)

case of marijuana (1937)

moral entrepreneurs created prohibition laws; justification shifted; public attitudes changed → legalization in many states by 2020

marijuana legalization by 2020

recreational legal in 11 states + D.C.; medical legal in 33 states + D.C.

Becker’s typology example: falsely accused

e.g., someone wrongly convicted of a crime they didn’t commit

Becker’s typology example: secret deviant

e.g., a drug user who never gets caught

Syrian refugees vs. immigrants in Europe example

even during moral panic, public definitions are fought over (not everyone agrees on the threat)

immigrant-crime disproportionality example

moral panic: immigrants as big crime driver → research shows unsubstantiated (Kubrin et al.)

rule enforcers & master status

enforcing rules may become their master status (all-consuming social identity)