GRE VOCAB: Theories and Concepts

Agnosticism (n)

the idea that nothing can be definitely known about a given area, particularly about the existence of God

Agnosticism is often confused with atheism, the belief that God does not exist. It is also commonly thought to refer to indecisiveness about whether or not God exists, but that is not really correct either.

Atheism (n)

the idea that God does not exist

Atheists generally hold the belief that God is an invention of mankind’s imagination, and many even hold that “blind faith” goes against reason, particularly in the face of increasing scientific discovery.

Behaviorism (n)

The theory that animal (and therefore, human) behavior is due entirely to responses by stimuli

The term behaviorism was coined by John Broadus Watson, and it is also known as the stimulus-response model. Behaviorism was deeply influenced by the work of Ivan Petrovich Pavlov, who performed famous experiments to “teach” dogs that they would be fed after a bell was rung, causing them to salivate upon hearing the bell ring.

Birth Order Theory (n)

the theory that children born in a certain order int he same household experience different environments and therefore develop different tendencies in their personalities

This controversial idea was proposed by Alfred Adler, and some more commonly held components of it include the belief that “oldest” siblings tend to be responsible and mature, “youngest” siblings tend to be self-centered, and “middle” siblings tend to be peacemakers.

Categorical imperative (n)

The idea that if one is acting in a consistent manner, one must act in a way that he or she would want everyone else to act, as well

The concept of the categorical imperative was introduced by Immanuel Kant, who sought to derive morality from reason.

Collective Memory (n)

a hypothetical unconscious memory shared by all of humanity

This idea of collective memory, also called the collective unconscious or racial memory, was proposed by Carl Gustav Jung. It is difficult to prove or disprove because of the difficulty of testing it; however, it is an idea that has sparked much public imagination and interest.

Deism (n)

the idea that God created the universe and then left mankind to operate by his own free will

Deists believe that the idea of a creator-God is compatible with reason, though some still refer to an unknowable, supernatural faith. Voltaire and Rousseau are some of the most well-known philosophers associated with deism, though many founding fathers of the United States— including Thomas Jefferson and Benjamin Franklin— espoused deism as well.

Determinism (n)

the idea that every event, physical and mental, has a specific cause

Put forth by Pierre-Simon, Marquis de Laplace, determinism covers a wide range of beliefs about the existence of free will and freedom of choice.

Egoism (n)

the idea that everyone should act to maximize his or her own welfare

In plain speech we call this selfishness or egotism, but it is also a concept that has undergone serious philosophical study. One problem with it is that one cannot be a proponent of egoism without encouraging others to act in their own best interests, which may conflict with one’s own.

Epicureanism (n)

a materialistic belief that pleasure should be maximized and pain minimized

Though today’s definition has more to do with self-indulgence, particularly in the areas of wine and food, this school of thought created by Epicurus of Samos was originally a rival school to the Stoics.

Game theory (n)

the analysis of conflicts to find optimal strategies

This type of study was created by mathematician John von Neumann, through the study of games of poker. It is frequently used in high-stakes decision-making, such as in business and war.

Gestalt Theory (n)

the idea that phenomena should be treated holistically rather than individually

The word gestalt comes from German and has no direct English translation, but is generally translated as form, shape, arrangement, or essence. In gestalt theory, a whole is not necessarily the same as the sum of its parts.

Hermeneutics (n)

the study of interpretation

Hermeneutics is largely concerned with the way in which interpretation is developed between the reader and a text and holds that there is no single correct interpretation of any text. Hermeneutics has its origins in biblical studies, but has expanded into the study of all literature, other art forms, and even human actions and events.

Idealism (n)

the idea that holds that reality is, at least in part, dependent on the mind.

This idea is often contrasted with realism, and it covers a wide range of beliefs about the degree to which the mind determines reality.

Nihilism (n)

literally “nothingism,” the belief that all knowledge is impossible

This term can also mean the complete rejection of all traditional values. It was popularized by Ivan Sergeyevich Turgenev in the novel Fathers and Sons.

Ockham’s Razor (n)

the idea that one should adopt the simplest hypothesis

Also known as the principle of parsimony, this idea is often appealing but problematic, partly because there is little scientific evidence that the simplest hypothesis has a greater claim to truth.

Phrenology (n)

the theory that observations of the skull were sufficient to determine the individual’s personality and mental capacity

This discredited theory was first proposed by Franz Josef Gall, but the word remains and commonly refers to ideas that internal characteristics can be measured by external ones.

Positivism (n)

a movement that involves approaching the natural world in a scientific fashion and classifying it accordingly

Pioneered by Auguste Comte, positivism had a profound impact on psychology and sociology. The sciences and human thought are both classified in hierarchical structures according to this idea.

Pragmatism (n)

a theory that assesses theories and concepts based on their effects on experiences and practices

Charles Sanders Peirce was the developer of this theory, and mainly focused on intellectual concepts, but William James expanded the theory to cover senses and emotions.

Relativism (n)

the idea that anything exists or is defined relative to anything else

Cognitive relativism seeks to ascertain that all beliefs are true for their holders, and moral relativism seeks to establish that right and wrong to some degree depend on the situation and circumstances in which a decision is made.

Social Darwinism (n)

the idea that the theory of natural selection can be applied to human society

Social Darwinism is based on the evolutionary theory put forth by Charles Darwin. Social Darwinism believe that humans—like the members of all other species— are in direct competition with one another, and that humans with certain qualities are more likely to survive and flourish than others. According to this theory, social programs such as welfare prevent society as a whole from growing stronger because they mitigate the effects of this competition.

Solipsism (n)

the idea that nothing exists beyond oneself and one’s immediate experiences

Solipsism is often a starting point for exploration into some other inquiry than a logical conclusion that one eventually reaches.

Stoicism (n)

a way of thinking that divides philosophy into the three branches of logic, physics, and ethics

Founded by Zeno of Citium, this school of philosophy was named for the “stoa” or portico where its adherents met. Stoicism was a rival school of Epicureanism and ancient Scepticism and it treated self-sufficiency and acceptance of fate as the aim. In modern language, a stoic is one who does not have or display emotions.

Theism (n)

the idea that God is the creator and supreme authority of the universe

Theism is the idea on which most major religions are based. Philosophers who claim that theism is flawed cite problems such as unknown nature of the supreme being, the conflict between the will of God and the expression of free will, and the presence of evil.