unit 3

cohort effect

Differences between age groups caused by different life experiences, not age itself

pros of cross-sectional studies

quick, cost effective, large samples possible

cons of cross-sectional studies

cohort effect, cannot track individual change over time

pros of longitudinal studies

tracks true developmental change, reveals long-term patterns

cons of longitudinal studies

expensive, time-consuming, participants may drop out (attrition)

critical periods

Brief windows when specific experiences or exposures have especially powerful effects on development.

imprinting

konrad Lorenz. An early attachment process in which young animals bond to the first moving figure they see.

gender socialization

The process of learning society's expectations and norms about gender.

gender roles

societal expectations about how males and females should think, act, and feel

four stages of cognitive development

sensorimotor → preoperational → concerete operational → formal operational

sensorimotor stage

birth- 2 years, Learning through senses & actions; develops object permanence

object permanance

Understanding that objects still exist even when they cannot be seen.

preoperational stage

2- 7 years old, pretended play, mental symbols, struggling with logic. No conservation, egocentrism, animism

egocentrism

ifficulty seeing another’s perspective

animism

believe that inanimate objects have feelings

concrete operational stage

7-11 years, much stronger in logic. Struggle with abstract and hypothetical concepts. Develops reversibility

formal operational stage

12+, Abstract reasoning; hypothetical thinking. not everyone fully reaches this stage

Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)

The range between what a learner can do alone and with help.

Scaffolding

Temporary support that helps a learner master a task before working independently.

Lev Vygotsky

A developmental psychologist who emphasized social interaction and culture in learning.

dementia

A serious decline in thinking abilities that interferes with everyday functioning.

trust vs mistrust

can i trust the people around me?

autonomy vs. shame & doubt

can i do things myself or am i reliant on the help of others?

initiative vs. guilt

Is it okay that i do what i do?

industry vs. inferiority

how can i stand out?

identity vs. confusion

who am I?

intimacy vs. isolation

will I be loved or will I be alone?

generativity vs. stagnation

How can I contribute to the world

ego integrity vs. despair

Did I live a meaningful life?

secure attachment style

Distressed when caregiver leaves; soothed when they return

Anxious- ambivalent attachment style (insecure)

Extreme distress; clingy but resistant. Mix of seeking and resisting contact. Inconsistent caregiver.

Avoidant attachment style (insecure)

Little distress; avoids caregiver on return. Caregivers are emtionally unavailable or unresponsive

Disorganized attachment style (insecure)

confused or contradictory behaviors. Abusive, neglectful, frightening caregivers.

temperament

innate emotional and behavioral style present from early life

phonemes

smallest units of sound. Eg. /b/

morphemes

smallest units of meaning. Ex. un = undo

semantics

meaning of words and sentences

grammar

the full rule system of a language

syntax

rules for word order

receptive language

ability to understand and process language before they can speak it

cooing stage

2-4 months, vowel-like sounds (ooo, aaa)

babbling stage

4-10 months, repeated consonant-vowel combos (baba, dada), babbling begins to reflect sounds of language they hear in their environment

one-word stage

1-2 years, also called holophrastic speech. One word expresses a whole idea

Two-word (telegraphic speech) stage

by 2 years old, two-word phrases

Overgeneralization

Applying standard grammar rules too broadly

linguistic determinism

language we speak determines the way we think and perceive the world

linguistic relativism

while language influences thought, it does not rigidly determine it

Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems Theory

microsystem → mesosystem → exosystem → macrosystem → chronosystem

Mircrosystem

groups that have direct contact with the individual

mesosystem

the relationships between groups in the microsystem. ex. parent-teacher communication

exosystem

indirect factors in an individual’s life. child isnt directly involved but still affects them

macrosystem

cultural events that affect the individuals and others around them

chronosystem

the individual’s current stage of life (time)

parallel play

Play in which children play side-by-side without much direct interaction.

personal fable

belief in one’s uniqueness and invulnerability.

social clock

culture plays a role in determining when adulthood starts and when life milestones (ie marriage, having kids, buying a home) should occur

unconditioned stimulus (UCS)

naturally triggers a response

unconditioned response (UCR)

natural, automatic response

conditioned stimulus (CS)

originally neutral stimulus that gains meaning

conditioned response (CR)

learned response to CS *UCR becomes CR

acquisition

The initial stage of learning when an association between stimuli is formed.

Acquitision sequence

UCS → UCR, CS + UCS → UCR, CS → CR

higher-order conditioning

CS acts like a UCS in a new pairing. Tone → salivation, Tone paired with light, Light alone → salivation

counterconditioning

replaces an unwanted response with a new, incompatible response.

systematic desensitization

gradually pairs relaxation with increasing exposure to a feared stimulus.

exposure therapy

reduces fear by repeatedly facing the feared stimulus without the expected harm.

habituation

decreased response to a repeated, harmless stimulus over time.

law of effect

Thorndike's idea that rewarded behaviors are repeated and punished behaviors become less likely

positive reinforcement

add something good to increase behavior

negative reinforcement

remove something bad to increase a behavior

positive punishment

add something bad to decrease behavior

negative punishment

remove something good to decrease behavior

shaping

Training a behavior by reinforcing closer and closer steps toward the desired action.

Superstitious Behavior

behavior that is repeated because a person mistakenly believes it caused a desired outcome. Ex. A basketball player wears “lucky socks” because they once played well while wearing them.

continuous reinforcement

reinforce every correct response, fast learning, fast extinction, best for acquisition

Fixed interval (FI)

reward after set time. Paycheck every two weeks.

Variable interval (VI)

unpredictable time. Checking for texts. Produces steady responding.

Fixed ratio

reward after set number of responses. Free coffee after 10 purchases. High rate + brief pause.

Variable ratio (VR)

unpredictable number of responses. slot machines. Highest, most persistent rate. Hardest to extinguish

vicarious conditioning

Learning by seeing someone else receive reinforcement or punishment.