Urban Issues and Challenges

Urbanisation

The process by which an increasing percentage of a country's population comes to live in towns and cities

Patter of urban change

• HICs show highest levels of urbanisation with the lowest levels being Africa and SE asia

• More people now live in towns and cities than in rural areas

• World population double between 1950 and 2015 and urban population more than tripled

  • decline in industry in developed countries as it moved towards NEE/LICs

  • to take advantage of cheaper workforce/tax brackets

  • Which led to industrial growth in NEE and ‘pulled’ people from rural regions to urban areas with the hope of a better life and employment

Urbanisation pathway

1 - Developing rural society phase where there is low levels of urbanisation and largely rural population of subsistence farmers

2 - Emerging economic take of begins rapid rural to urban migration leads to an accelerating rate of urbanisation

3 - Emerged maturing economy rate of urbanisation continue to rise but start to slacken (suburban spread)

4 - Develop mass urbanisation rate of urbanisation levels off and percentage of urban peaks most people live in towns

5 - Counter urbanisation in advanced economies decentralisation sets in people move to smaller towns and cities and semi rural areas urbanism continues to spread

Megacities

• City with over 10 million people

• Around 41 predicted in the world today a rise from 33 in 2018 and 15 in 2000

• Modern transport and communication → urban areas are sprawling into rural regions to create conurbations (adds to growth of urban area)

Urban trends in HICs

• Rate of urban growth : slowly declining / 1%

• More economically developed and have already experienced urbanisation (80% in urban areas)

• Industrial revolution ‘pulled’ the population into developing urban areas at the time

• HICs population is being ‘pushed’ away from overcrowded cities to rural settlements

• eg. UK/Japan/Germany

Urban trends in NEEs

• Rate of urban growth : Rapid 2%

• Economic development increasing rapidly - investments from TNCs/government

• Urban population around 50% (however countries experiencing rapid urban growth this figure can be much higher)

• Trade such as finance, electronics and manufactured goods

• eg. Lagos - Nigeria/Mumbai - India (not capital but very developed due to trade)

Urban trends in LICs

• Rate of urban growth : Fastest rate of urbanisation 6%

• Less economically developed so most new economic development concentrated in densely populated cities through investment in low cost manufacture etc.

• Cities are experiencing higher levels of natural increase in population

• Only 30% of population live in urban areas

• eg. Sub Saharan countries like Ethiopia

Factors affecting urbanisation

• Speed of economic development

  • Drives urbanisation/faster the growth of secondary and tertiary sectors faster the growth of urbanisation

• Rate of population growth

  • Economic growth needs supply of labour/rural urban migration meets this

• Natural increase

  • Accounts for roughly 60% of urban population growth

  • Due to decreases death rates and higher birth rates~

  • Due to increase in life expectancy

  • eg. young people get jobs (move - pull) then have children in urban area so increased population of living there

Rural urban migration

• Movement of people from countryside to cities

• Affected by combination of push factors (leave) and pull factors (move to)

Push factor

Reality of the current situation for the migrant; it is what makes the person consider moving from the place of origin

Pull factor

Perceived outcome; it is what the migrant imagines the move will bring to the place of destination

Push Factors (4 Types and example + cause and effect)

War / Conflict (Political)
Cause: Country becomes unsafe.
Effect: People flee to avoid violence and death.

Unemployment (Economic)
Cause: No jobs or very low wages.
Effect: People leave to find work elsewhere.

Poor Healthcare & Education (Social)
Cause: Low quality services.
Effect: Families move for better life chances.

Drought / Natural Disasters (Environmental)
Cause: Crops fail or homes destroyed.
Effect: People migrate to survive.

PULL Factors (4 Types and example + cause and effect)

Job Opportunities (Economic)
Cause: More jobs and higher wages available.
Effect: Migrants move to improve income and living standards.

Peace & Safety (Political)
Cause: Stable government and low crime.
Effect: People move to feel secure.

Better Healthcare & Education (Social)
Cause: Good schools and hospitals
Effect: Families move for better future prospects and higher life expectancy

Good Climate / Fertile Land (Environmental)
Cause: Reliable weather for farming/living.
Effect: Attracts migrants seeking stability.

Megacities Extra

• Megacities are urban areas with over 10 million residents 

• In 2007, more people lived in an urban environment than a rural one

• By 2050 it is thought that more than two-thirds (7 billion) of the world's population will live in urban areas

• This scaling up of the urban environment is the fastest in human history

• The largest growth of megacities is seen in Asia

Four Main factors for growth in megacities

• Economic development

• Population growth

• Economies of Scale

• Multiplier Effect

Economic development - Megacities

• Encourages population growth, which leads to the desirability of goods and services

• All megacities act as service centres within the formal economic sector

• Megacities in NEEs are also important manufacturing centres (Mumbai in India or Dhaka in Bangladesh) with thousands working in the informal economy

Population growth - Megacities

• Young people are drawn to live in megacities with their vibrancy, fast pace and opportunities

• There is also ‘internal growth’, where people who have moved into the cities have children, thus sustaining population growth

Economies of scale - Megacities

• It's cheaper to provide goods and services in one place than spread across several cities

• Financial savings for local governments in respect of infrastructure provision

• Communication and transport are centralised, making savings in time and money

Multiplier effect - Megacities

• As city prospers it acts as a beacon to people and businesses

• This encourages inward investment

• Leading to more development and growth

• Generating further need for skills and labour and job growth

• Cycles multiples the positive effects and growth continues

• eg. San Francisco and digital development

Categories of Megacities

• World/global cities can be any size but exert particular influences around the globe - Critical hubs in global economy

• Alpha ++ - Connected to world cities network more than any other city have a high level of connectivity (smaller network of world cities feed them)

  • (London and New York)

• Alpha + - Provide advanced services

• Alpha and beta world cities - connect major economic regions and states to global economy

• Gamma world cities - smaller states or regions to world economy or their main global industry is not as advanced

  • Cape Town/Bristol

Urban sustainability

• Urban sustainability is when a city is managed in a way that meets the needs of people today without damaging the environment or limiting future generations’ needs

• Living in a way that doesn’t irreversibly damage the environment or use up resources faster than they can be replaced

• Large cities require so many resources that it is unlikely they will every be truly sustainable however there are schemes to make it better

Water Conservation Schemes

• Only as much water should be taken from the environment that can be naturally replaced

• Examples of methods to reduce water usage:

  • Wastewater treatment

  • Collecting rainwater for use in gardens/flushing toilets

  • Encouraging use of low-flow flush toilets or grey water systems

  • Installation of water meter so people pay for amount of water they use

  • Educate people about water use and waste

Water conservation scheme example

• Curitiba Brazil government introduced various policies to promote sustainable water usage

• Installation of water meters/hosepipe bans

• City has separate systems for non drinking water so less drinking water is used

• Schemes have successfully reduced Curitiba’s water consumption as it is around half that other Latin America Cities

Challenges of Bad Water Transfer Schemes

Lack of infrastructure investment.
Effect: Dirty water spreads diseases (e.g. cholera).

Poverty / low government funding.
Effect: High death rates and poor quality of life.

Rapid urbanisation (cities grow too quickly).
Effect: Sewage systems become overloaded.

Energy Conservation Schemes

• Burning fossil fuels to generate power is not sustainable because they are non renewable and will run out

• They contribute to climate change by producing greenhouse gases

• Energy conservation schemes reduce usage by:

  • Promoting renewable energy wind or solar over coal (pollution so health issues) and gas

  • Encouraging people to make homes more energy efficient by using energy saving appliances and generating electricity from renewable sources (solar panels)

  • Sell excess energy to national grid

  • Encouraging people to reduce car use and use public transport

Energy Conservation Schemes Example

• In 2009, Curitiba renovated Green Line transport system

• Now included dedicated bus lanes for biofuel buses

• Scheme is present to replace all of the city street lights with energy efficient bulbs

• City gets 84% energy from renewable hydroelectrical power

• Curitiba’s CO2 emission from electricity are 65% less than other Latin America Cities

What is Urban Greening

• Manage economic and environmental factors to improve quality of life

• Involves

  • Offers green space for families to enjoy

  • Brownfield instead of greenfield sites

  • Engaging local communities that offer various job opportunities

Urban Greening - Environmental Benefits

• Vegetation and soil hold water, reducing flooding by preventing it from going to drains and rivers

• Improve air quality with trees and plants that filter the air, reducing pollution and its impact on people

• Gardens and green areas boost biodiversity in cities

• Reduces urban temperatures as materials in urban areas (concrete) absorb heat making cities hotter than countryside (urban heat island effect)

Urban Greening - Social Benefits

• Cities are noisy/dirty/busy and unsustainable because people find them unpleasant and stressful

• Creating green space within urban areas ensures that they remain in place4s where people want to live and work

• This is because:

  • Provide naturally cooler areas where people can relax in very hot weather

  • Encourage people to exercise more to use alternative transport making people healthier and less stressed

  • Make people happier due to its aesthetic appeal and break from noise and bustle of city

Urban Greening - Example

• In 2007, Curitiba launched a government scheme that encouraged landowners to preserve green areas limiting urban sprawl

• People who created parks were exempt for local taxes

• 28 parks in the city including 1.4 million square meter Barigui Park

• which is designed to absorb flood waters so flood defences are not required

Waste recycling

• More recycling means fewer resources are used

• Less waste is produces which reduces the amount that goes to landfill

• Landfill is unsustainable as it wastes resources that could be recycled and eventually there will be nowhere left to bury the waste

• Decomposing landfill also releases GHGs

• Waste recycling schmes:

  • Kerbside collections of recyclable materials

  • Building recycling facilities to deal with larger items

  • Websites (Freegle) where items are offered for free so they can be reused instead of thrown away

Example of waste recycling

• Curitiba is one of eight cities in the world which collects 100% of its waste

• 70% which is recycled

• ‘The Green Exchange Programme’ in 1989 where resident receive 1kg of food or bus tickets for every 4kg of recyclable waste collected

• Scheme has lead to 6800 tonnes of waste collected each year

Wate recycling

Processing used materials to make new products, reducing landfill and conserving resources.

Why is traffic congestion a big problem for urban areas?

• Traffic congestion from cars and lorries cause problems in urban areas

• Environmental problems - lots of traffic increases air pollution and the release of green house gases contributing to climate change

• Economic Problems - congestion can make people late for work and delay deliveries causing companies to lose money

• Social problems - Higher chance of accidents. Congestion also causes frustration for drivers health issues for pedestrians (breathe in polluted air)

• Can delay emergency vehicles

How can traffic congestion be managed?

• Public transport encourages people to not travel by car

• In London:

  • Dockland light railway is automatic train system that connects east London to the city centre

  • Operates mostly on tracks above the street level though parts are underground

  • Used by 120 million people each year

  • Oyster cards - allow people to easily access travel on London transport

How can traffic pollution be managed?

• London has a strict congestion charge and has reduced its levels of pollution by approximately 25% and stopped 13,500 cars a day entering the city centre

• Self service bicycles are available to hire and are cheaper than other forms of public transport

• bike lanes and special bike signals improve safety

• Invest in Park and Ride to cut car usage in the city centre and improve the environment

How can traffic flow be managed?

• Reducing traffic flow reduces congestion

• Can be done by:

  • Ring roads and pedestrian shopping streets to keep traffic away from city centre

  • Making it less polluted and safer and preventing congestion of narrow city centre roads

  • Bus priority lanes - stop buses being held up in traffic making them more attractive then driving

  • Parking restriction - make sure parked cars do not block traffic (urban clearways are major roads along which stopping/parking is limited)

Example of traffic flow scheme

• Curitiba’s Bus Rapid Transit System uses a series of bus lanes to ensure journeys are quick

• 80% of travellers (700k) use the Bus Rapid Transport system and no one lives more than 400 metres from the bus stop

• Passengers can recycle plastic and glass bottles to pay for a bus fare

• Curitiba’s emissions are 25% lower per capita than the average Brazilian city

• City centre main shopping centre is also pedestrianised further encouraging people to leave their cars at home