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Coalition Governments

More likely to form in political systems with lower majorities due to the division of seats among parties.

Welfare State

A system where the government protects and promotes the economic and social well-being of its citizens, typically found in Western Europe with center-left governance and policies stemming from labor unions.

Proportional Representation (PR) Systems

Electoral systems that tend to lead to a higher percentage of women in parliamentary positions compared to majoritarian systems.

Gender Gap in Politics

A theorized difference in political interests between men and women, often linked to women's valuation of welfare states due to career support and the alleviation of unpaid labor.

Bicameralism

A system with two legislative chambers. In parliamentary systems, a strong upper house can lead to governmental dysfunction or constitutional crises.

Calculus of Voting (PV - C > 0)

A rational model for voting decisions where P = probability of vote being decisive, V = value from preferred candidate winning, and C = cost of voting. A positive outcome suggests a rational decision to vote.

Missing D

An addition to the calculus of voting, representing feelings of duty or civic pride that provide intrinsic motivation for many voters, even when their vote's impact is perceived as minimal