hbs unit 2.1

Central Nervous System

The brain and spinal cord.

Peripheral Nervous System

Nerves that branch out from the brain and spinal cord.

Cerebrum

The largest part of the brain, responsible for higher brain functions such as thought, action, and sensory processing.

Frontal Lobe

Involved in reasoning, planning, movement, and problem-solving; responsible for higher cognitive functions and emotional regulation.

Parietal Lobe

Processes sensory information from the body; responsible for spatial awareness and navigation.

Temporal Lobe

Associated with processing auditory information and important for memory and understanding language.

Occipital Lobe

Primarily responsible for visual processing and interpreting visual information from the eyes.

Cerebellum

Responsible for coordination of voluntary movements, balance, and posture.

Brain Stem

Connects the brain to the spinal cord; regulates involuntary vital functions and sleep-wake cycle.

Pons

Links the brain to the spinal cord; handles unconscious movements and processes.

Olfactory Bulb

Located at the base of the brain, responsible for processing the sense of smell.

Broca's Area

Located in the frontal lobe, crucial for speech production and language processing.

Wernicke's Area

Found in the temporal lobe, essential for language comprehension.

Vision

Primarily processed in the occipital lobe.

Muscle Coordination

Primarily processed by the cerebellum.

Breathing

Mainly regulated by the brainstem (medulla oblongata).

Happiness

Processed in the limbic system (including the amygdala and nucleus accumbens).

Language Understanding

Primarily happens in Wernicke's area located in the left temporal lobe.

Thirst and Hunger

Regulated by the hypothalamus.

Speech Production

Primarily takes place in Broca's area located in the left frontal lobe.

Movement

Controlled by the motor cortex in the frontal lobe.

Smell

Processed by the olfactory bulb, part of the limbic system.

Reasoning

Mainly occurs in the prefrontal cortex.

Long-Term Memory

Handled by the hippocampus, part of the limbic system.

Hearing

Processed in the auditory cortex located in the temporal lobe.

Bodily Sensations

Processed in the somatosensory cortex located in the parietal lobe.

Taste

Processed in the gustatory cortex located in the insular or frontal lobe.

Blood Pressure Regulation

Managed by the brainstem (medulla oblongata).

Sleeping and Waking

Primarily regulated by the hypothalamus (specifically the suprachiasmatic nucleus).

Balance

Controlled by the cerebellum and inner ear (vestibular system).

Problem-Solving

Primarily occurs in the prefrontal cortex.

Stress

Involves the amygdala and hypothalamus.

Neurons

Primary signaling cells of the nervous system that send and receive signals.

Glial Cells

Cells that provide protection and maintain homeostasis for neurons.

Myelin

A cholesterol derivative that insulates axons for faster signal transmission.

Multiple Sclerosis (MS)

A disorder affecting the central nervous system that leads to demyelination.

Symptoms of MS

Including numbness, vision problems, fatigue, and cognitive difficulties.

Sensory Neurons

Transmit information from sensory receptors to the central nervous system.

Motor Neurons

Transmit information from the central nervous system to muscles.

Interneurons

Transmit information between different parts of the central nervous system.

Reflex Arc

A neural pathway allowing rapid response to stimuli.

Pain Receptors

Specialized nerve endings that detect painful stimuli.

CIPA

Congenital Insensitivity to Pain with Anhidrosis, a rare disorder affecting pain perception.

Neurotransmission

The process of signal transmission between neurons.

Action Potential

The electrical impulse that travels down the axon.

Resting Potential

The cell's state when it is not being stimulated, typically -70mV.

Depolarization

The change in charge that occurs when sodium channels open and sodium ions rush in.

Repolarization

The process of returning to resting potential by potassium ions moving out of the cell.

Ion Channels

Protein channels allowing ions to move across the membrane.

Neurotransmitter

Chemical signals released by neurons to communicate with other neurons.

Excitatory Neurotransmitter

Increases the likelihood of an action potential.

Inhibitory Neurotransmitter

Decreases the likelihood of an action potential.

Graded Potential

The change in electrical potential of the receiving cell when neurotransmitters bind.

Threshold Potential

The level of depolarization required for an action potential to occur, around -55mV.

ADHD and GABA

Lower levels of GABA can lead to increased neuronal activity in individuals with ADHD.

Clinical Researcher

Conducts research on human subjects to develop new treatments.

Experimental Researcher

Conducts laboratory research to understand underlying phenomena.

Histology of a Neuron

Study of the structure of neurons, including cell body, dendrites, and axons.

Astrocytes

Support cells that provide nutrients and oxygen to neurons.

Oligodendrocytes

Support cells that produce myelin in the central nervous system.

Microglia

Act as immune cells in the central nervous system.

Ependymal Cells

Line the ventricles and central canal of the spinal cord.

Choroid Plexus Cells

Produce cerebrospinal fluid in the ventricles.

Reflex Arc Components

Include receptor, sensory neuron, interneuron, motor neuron, and effector.

Electricity in the Neuron

Human body utilizes moving electrical charges for communication.

Sodium Channel

Allows sodium ions to move into the cell.

Potassium Channel

Allows potassium ions to move out of the cell.

Sodium-Potassium Pump

Maintains the resting potential by moving 3 sodium ions out of the cell and 2 potassium ions into the cell across the membrane.

acetylcholine

muscle contraction, learning, and memory

dopamine

role in pleasure, motivation, mood, attention, memory

gaba

inhibitory neurotransmitter of cns, signal regulation, helps normal brain function

glutamate

excitatory neurotransmitter in brain+synapse, help memory function

epinephrine/norepinephrine

fight or flight response and increase arousal,attentiom

serotonin

mood regulation, sleep, aids in digestion

agonist

chemical substance that combines with a specific receptor on a cell and initiate the same drug as the regular substance

antagonist

substance that stops the action effect of another substance

inverse agonist

compound that binds/prevents receptor activity w/ the absence of an agonist

reuptake inhibitor

drug that stops/delays the body from reabsorbing a substance

diphenhydramine moa

Antagonist

morphine

agonist

caffeine

antagonist

cocaine

reuptake inhibitor

what is the reward/addiction pathway

route for signals in the brain that govern motivated behavior and induces feeling of pleasure or euphoira

what can stimulate the reward pathway

aside from normal pleasure, it can be stimulated by drugs

what is the main neurotransmitter in the reward pathway

dopamine

how do opioids like morphine affect your brain

they are normally medications used to treat extreme pain, but can lead to addiction due to your body needing more and more to feel the same effect (receptors die to neutralize pain felt)

what happens when mu opioid receptors are activated under the influence of opioids

they trigger the release of a greater amount of dopamine than normal in the reward pathway

what is the result of increased dopamine release from opioids in the reward pathway

leads to feeling of euphoria or a “high”

what happens when there is a repeated use of opioids

the brain gets used to the feeling a searches for more the get the seem pleasurable feeling leading to an addiction

what regulatory changes occur in the brain due to overstimulation from opioids

the number of dopamine receptors in neurons of the reward pathway is reduced

what is drug tolerance

condition where the same amount of a drug produces a lesser effect over time due to reduced dopamine receptors

what does increased tolerance mean for opioid consumption

higher amounts of the drug are needed to achieve the same effect of pleasure

reflex

An automatic response to a stimulus that doesn’t reach the level of consciousness. (involuntary)

reaction

A thoughtful response to external stimuli in which the brain processes the nerve impulse before reacting. (voluntary)

patella tendon reflex

can see the patellar reflex light stretching of the quadriceps muscle activating the stretch receptor.This begins a nerve impulse that travels to the spinal cord.The motor neurons in the spinal cord activate without any signal going to the brain for processing.These motor neurons then bring the signal to the muscle, causing it to contract.

Alzheimer's disease

Occurs due to abnormal levels of protein clumps that form plaque which collects between neurons and disrupts cell functions. Causes mood swings, confusion, memory loss, and item misplacement. Has no cure but can be treated with Donezil.

multiple sclerosis

Occurs due to the immune system attacking the myelin sheath in the neurons. It can cause excessive fatigue, pins and needles in the feet and hands, and a weak and unbalanced feeling. It has no cure and can be treated with medications and therapy.

huntington’s disease

Occurs due to a genetic mutation that causes the breaking down of cells. It causes mood swings, depression, "dancing spells", and clumsiness. It has no cure and can only be treated with antidepressants and therapy.

amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS)

Occurs due to the killing of motor neurons, and causes slurred speech, weakness in the hands and feet, and clumsiness. Has no cure and can only be treated with therapy and medication.

epilepsy

Occurs due to overactive electrical discharges which disrupts the brain's normal electrical flow. it can cause convulsions, seizures, fear/anxiety, loss of consciousness, muscle stiffness, and confusion. It has no cure and can be treated with AED's and surgery.