POSC 401 Final Exam

Absentee Voting

• A vote cast by a person who, because of absence from their usual voting district, illness, or the like, has been permitted to vote by mail

Abuse of Power

• The misuse of a high-ranking position to unfairly disadvantage or harm others for personal gain, coercion, or unethical goals

Activism

• The practice of taking direct, deliberate action to bring social, political, economic, or environmental change

Affirmative Action

• Policies designed to eliminate discrimination, serve as a remedy for past exclusion, and foster a diverse environment for underrepresented groups

First Amendment

• Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof, or abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press, or the right of the people peaceably to assemble and to petition the Government for a redress of grievances.

Second Amendment

• Protects the right of the people to keep and bear arms 

Fourth Amendment

• Protects individuals against unreasonable searches and seizures by the government, establishing the right to privacy in persons, houses, papers, and effects

Fifth Amendment

• Provides protection for individuals in legal proceedings, including the right to a grand jury for capital crimes, protection against double jeopardy and self-incrimination, the right to due process of law, and compensation for taking private property

Sixth Amendment

• Guarantees fundamental rights to individuals accused of crimes in the United States. Ensures the right to a speedy and public trial by an impartial jury, the right to counsel, the right to confront witnesses, and the right to know accusations and evidence

Eighth Amendment

• Prohibits the federal government from imposing excessive bail, excessive fines, or cruel and unusual punishments. It limits the unduly harsh penalties on criminal defendants before and after conviction

Ninth Amendment

• The enumeration of specific rights in the Constitution does not mean that other unenumerated rights retained by the people are denied or disparaged. It ensures that rights not explicitly listed in the Bill of Rights – such as the right to privacy – are still protected 

Tenth Amendment

• Reserves all powers not specifically delegated to the federal government to the individual states or to the people. It establishes the principle of federalism, limiting federal authority and protecting state sovereignty

Twelfth Amendment

• Requires electors to cast separate, distinct votes for President and Vice President, rather than two votes for President. This reform addressed electoral ties and ensured that the President and Vice President ran on party tickets. Preventing opposing parties from sharing the executive branch

Thirteenth Amendment

• Officially abolished slavery and involuntary servitude, except as punishment for a crime, upon its ratification on December 6, 1865. It was the first of three Reconstruction Amendments passed after the Civil War, fundamentally transforming the U.S. Constitution to ensure national freedom.

Fourteenth Amendment

• Redefined American citizenship, granted formerly enslaved people citizenship, and prohibited states from denying equal protection or due process of law. It established birthright citizenship, incorporated the Bill of Rights against state governments, and established the “one person, one vote” principle.

Fifteenth Amendment

• Prohibits federal and state governments from denying a citizen the right to vote based on "race, color, or previous condition of servitude". As the final Reconstruction Amendment, it aimed to secure voting rights for African American men, though its impact was limited by discriminatory state practices for nearly a century

Seventeenth Amendment

• The Senate of the United States shall be composed of two Senators from each State, elected by the people thereof, for six years; and each Senator shall have one vote. The electors in each State shall have the qualifications requisite for electors of the most numerous branch of the State legislatures.

Nineteenth Amendment

• prohibits the federal government and states from denying U.S. citizens the right to vote on the basis of sex. It officially brought women's suffrage to the entire nation after decades of protests, lobbying, and legal challenges.

Twenty-Second Amendment

• limits a president to being elected to office only twice, codifying the two-term tradition established by George Washington. It was passed following Franklin D. Roosevelt’s election to four terms, aiming to prevent a long-term dictatorship.

Twenty-Fourth Amendment

• prohibits Congress and the states from imposing poll taxes or other taxes as a requirement for voting in federal elections. This amendment aimed to eliminate financial barriers that disproportionately disenfranchised African Americans and low-income voters in the South.

Twenty-Fifth Amendment

• clarifies presidential succession and establishes procedures for handling presidential disability or incapacity. It ensures a seamless transfer of power if a president dies, resigns, is removed, or is unable to fulfill their duties.

Twenty-Sixth Amendment

• The 26th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution, ratified on July 1, 1971, lowered the national voting age from 21 to 18, prohibiting federal and state governments from denying the right to vote to any citizen 18 or older on account of age. Driven by the Vietnam War-era slogan "old enough to fight, old enough to vote," it was ratified in record time.

Americans with Disabilities Act (1990)

• The Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) of 1990 is a landmark civil rights law signed on July 26, 1990, prohibiting discrimination against individuals with disabilities in all areas of public life, including jobs, schools, transportation, and public/private places open to the general public. It ensures equal rights and opportunities for people with physical and mental impairments that limit major life activities.

Anti-corruption

• Being against dishonesty or a criminal offense that is undertaken by a person or organization that is entrusted in a position of authority to acquire illicit benefits or abuse of power for one's own gain

Anti-Federalists

• A coalition opposing the 1787 Constitution's ratification, fearing a strong central government would destroy sovereignty and individual liberties.

Articles of Confederation

• The first U.S. Constitution created a loose confederation of sovereign states with a weak central government to manage the  Revolutionary War.

Assault

• An intentional criminal act causing reasonable fear of imminent harm or offensive contact, or the attempt to commit such contact.

Authoritarian

• A system, leader, or personality prioritizing strict obedience to authority, centralizing power, and suppressing dissent.

Authoritarianism

• a form of government characterized by the concentration of power in a leader or elite, not constitutionally accountable to the public, suppressing political freedom and civil liberties. It features blind submission to authority, limited political pluralism, and often, the manipulation of democratic institutions to maintain control.

Autocrat

• A ruler who has absolute power

Ballot

• a device used to cast votes in an election, and may be found as a piece of paper or a small ball used in voting

Ballot Tampering

• a form of Voter suppression, which is the effort to limit a group's capacity to register, vote, or cast an effective ballot.

Bias

• Disproportionate preference, inclination, or prejudice against an idea, person, or group leading to unfair, irrational judgment.

Bicameral

• a system of government where the legislature is divided into two separate assemblies, chambers, or houses. It serves as a check on legislative power, with about 40% of national legislatures using this model, typically consisting of a lower house apportioned by population and an upper house that often represents regions.

Bill of Rights

• The first ten amendments to the U.S. The Constitution guarantees essential civil rights and liberties.

Bipartisan

• refers to political cooperation, agreement, and compromise between the two major political parties (typically Democrats and Republicans in the U.S.) to pass legislation or address issues. It involves finding common ground and prioritizing governance over strict party ideology.

Boston Tea Party

A pivotal political protest by the Sons of Liberty on December 16, 1773, in which colonists dumped 342 chests of British East India Company tea into Boston Harbor. Protesting "taxation without representation" and the Tea Act of 1773, this act of defiance against British rule intensified hostilities and led to the American Revolution.

Branches of Government

• The United States government is divided into three distinct, coequal sections—legislative, executive, and judicial—to ensure a separation of powers and prevent any one group from becoming too powerful. This system of checks and balances allows each branch to monitor and limit the others.

Executive Branch

• responsible for implementing and enforcing laws passed by Congress. Led by the President, who acts as head of state and Commander-in-Chief, it includes the Vice President, Cabinet, and federal agencies. Has the power of presidential vetoes, appointment of judges, and treaty making negotiations

Judicial Branch

• The system of federal and state courts that interprets laws, applies them to individual cases, and determines their constitutionality, as established by Article III of the U.S. Constitution. It operates as one of three independent branches of government, checking the power of the legislative and executive branches. Also has the power of judicial review

Legislative Branch

• is Congress, a bicameral body consisting of the House of Representatives (435 voting members) and the Senate (100 senators), has the power to override vetoes, the power of the purse, advise and consent, and impeachment powers

Bureaucracy

• a system of administration, management, or government characterized by a strict, hierarchical structure, specialized functions, and adherence to fixed rules and procedures. It is used to manage large institutions, both public (government agencies) and private (corporations). While often associated with "red tape" and slow decision-making, it aims to provide efficiency, fairness, and consistency.

Capitalism

• An economic system where the means of production – resources, including money and other forms of capital – are owned by private individuals and/or companies. Factories, land, and resources, are privately owned. Capitalism is operated for a profit, and free market competition.

Censorship

• The suppression of control of speech, media, and ideas, often imposed by government or private groups to manage Social morality, national security, or restricted to “offensive” content

Census

• An official, systematic procedure for counting the entire population of a country, city, or region and collecting related demographic, social, and economic information. Commonly conducted periodically (e.g., every 10 years in the US), it provides crucial data for allocating government funding, determining legislative representation, and planning for infrastructure needs.

Certification

• Formal credentials demonstrating specific skills or knowledge that help professionals validate expertise and boost employability through examinations or assessments

Checks and Balances

• A foundational U.S constitutional principle preventing any single branch of government from overstepping its role or becoming too powerful

Civil Discourse

• Civil political discourse is the respectful, open exchange of ideas aimed at understanding different perspectives and solving public problems, rather than simply winning arguments. It focuses on listening, curiosity, and identifying common ground to build civic trust and bridge divides in a polarized society.

Civil Disobedience

• An intentional breach of law for a social purpose. It is controversial, yet effective

Civic Engagement

• involves individual or group actions designed to identify and address public concerns, with the aim of improving community life and strengthening democracy. It encompasses both political actions (e.g., voting, lobbying) and non-political actions (e.g., volunteering, community organizing) to foster social responsibility and collective action.

Civil Liberties

• fundamental, constitutional guarantees that protect individuals from arbitrary government interference, primarily enshrined in the U.S. Bill of Rights. These essential rights include freedom of speech, religion, the press, assembly, and privacy, which act as limitations on government power. They ensure personal autonomy and due process.

Civil Rights

• legally enforceable guarantees of equal treatment and protection from discrimination based on race, sex, religion, disability, or national origin. Enforced by federal, state, and local agencies, these rights ensure equitable access to housing, employment, education, and voting. The landmark Civil Rights Act of 1964 remains a foundational law against discrimination.

Click baiting

• A form of misinformation, with no intent to deceive, where the users get baited by sensational headlines, to click on the form of media

Coercion

• The practice of forcing another party to act against their will through threats, intimidation, physical force, Or psychological pressure.

Communism

• a political and economic ideology aiming for a classless, moneylender-less, and stateless society based on common ownership of the means of production. Rooted in the works of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, it advocates the elimination of private property to achieve social equality. In practice, 20th-century communist states functioned as single-party systems with state-controlled economies.

Compromise

• An agreement or settlement of a dispute, reached by each side making concessions, is essential for navigating opposing ideologies and allowing policy formulation by meeting in the middle.

Confirmation Bias

• the automatic, often unconscious tendency to search for, interpret, favor, and recall information that supports one's pre-existing beliefs while ignoring contrary evidence. This cognitive shortcut, also known as "myside bias," reinforces existing attitudes, affects decision-making, and can lead to flawed, prejudiced, or irrational judgments.

Conflict of Interest

• occurs when a public official's private, personal interests—financial, familial, or professional—interfere with their ability to perform official duties impartially. These situations, which include accepting gifts, using insider knowledge for stock trading, or benefiting from business interests, threaten public confidence and are often subject to strict legal disclosure, recusal, or divestment rules to prevent corruption.

Constitution

• The supreme law of the nation was signed on September 17, 1787, by the Constitutional Convention in Philadelphia. It establishes the framework of the federal government, separating powers into legislative, executive, and judicial branches. It consists of a Preamble, seven articles, and 27 amendments, including the Bill of Rights.

Criticism (Pluralism Con)

• a necessary byproduct of pluralism, acting as the mechanism that manages diversity of thought, prevents intellectual stagnation, and negotiates competing viewpoints.

Cultural Suppression

• cultural group. Often driven by dominant groups or states, it aims to force assimilation or erase minority identities through policies like banning languages, destroying artifacts, or forced education.

Declaration of Independence

• Adopted by the Second Continental Congress on July 4, 1776, the Declaration of Independence is the founding document of the United States, announcing the 13 American colonies' separation from British rule. Primarily authored by Thomas Jefferson, it established the principles of self-evident equality, unalienable rights (life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness), and government by consent.

Democracy

• a system of government where power is vested in the people, exercised either directly or through freely elected representatives. It is characterized by competitive elections, the rule of law, civic participation, and the protection of human rights, aiming to ensure accountability and equality.

Democracy Backsliding

• When checks and balances are weakened, the rule of law and free expression are challenged. It's important to note that this is all happening gradually under the guise that whatever is happening is legal; those in power exploit procedures that legitimize their very power. Examples of this internationally are Poland, Turkey, and Hungary. Conditions for democracy to backslide are racism, polarization, nativism, and inequality.  Possible erosions are the rule of law, judicial independence, free press, fair elections, and civil and minority rights

Dictator

• a ruler with absolute, unconstrained power over a state, typically maintaining control through military force, intimidation, and suppression of civil liberties. Modern dictatorships often involve totalitarian control over public and private life, distinguishing them from democratic systems.

Dictatorship

• a form of government where absolute power is held by a single leader or a small group, typically without effective constitutional limitations. Such regimes maintain control through coercion, suppression of civil liberties, and propaganda, often arising from military coups or government breakdowns.

Direct

• refers to moving in a straight line, acting without intermediaries, or being frank and honest

Discretion

• The authority or freedom to make decisions based on personal judgment rather than rigid rules, balancing legal, professional, or social choices with wisdom and caution

Direct Discrimination

• A law that gets passed that targets a specific group based solely on that group's characteristics

Indirect Discrimination

• Dispersed impact, when there's a policy or law that appears neutral on its face but has a disproportionate, negative effect on that group that cannot be justified by legitimate need

Discrimination in a Democracy

• Unfair, prejudicial, or unequal treatment of individuals based on race, gender, religion, sexual orientation, ethnicity, political belief, or socio-economics (class)

Ethnicity

• a social construct grouping people who identify with each other based on shared cultural traits, such as ancestry, language, history, society, religion, or traditions. Unlike race, which is often based on physical characteristics, ethnicity focuses on shared heritage and cultural identity. It is not fixed and can evolve, allowing individuals to identify with one or more groups based on their connections.

Gender

• refers to the socially constructed roles, behaviors, expressions, and identities of girls, women, boys, men, and gender-diverse people. It influences how people perceive themselves and each other, often differing from biological sex (assigned at birth) and varying across cultures and time.

Language

• a structured system of communication—encompassing spoken, written, and signed forms—that uses grammar and vocabulary to convey meaning. It is a fundamental human tool for social interaction, cultural expression, and thought, characterized by its diversity, productivity, and ability to represent ideas not immediately present.

Political Belief

• sets of ideals, principles, and doctrines that define how an individual believes society should be organized, how power should be used, and the role government should play. In the U.S., these are often arranged on a spectrum from liberal (left) to conservative (right), with many individuals holding a mix of views.

Race

• a social construct used to categorize humans into groups based on shared physical traits (like skin color), ancestry, or social qualities. While historically used to imply biological differences, modern science recognizes race as a fluid, socially defined identity rather than an inherent biological, genetic, or anthropological reality.

Religion

• a structured system of beliefs, practices, and worldviews that connects humanity to spiritual, sacred, or moral values. It often addresses ultimate questions about life, death, and existence, frequently involving the worship of a god or supernatural forces. Key aspects include rituals, scriptures, and community, with major global religions including Christianity, Islam, Hinduism, Buddhism, and Judaism.

Sexual Orientation

• is an enduring pattern of emotional, romantic, and/or sexual attraction to men, women, or multiple genders. It is an intrinsic part of an individual's identity, distinct from gender identity, and exists on a continuum, ranging from exclusive homosexuality to exclusive heterosexuality. Common orientations include straight, gay, lesbian, bisexual, and asexual.

Socio-economics

• An interdisciplinary field studying how social behavior, social structures, and economic activity influence each other. It examines how factors such as income, education, and occupation affect individuals and society, moving beyond traditional economic models to incorporate psychology, sociology, and ethics.

Disenfranchisement

• The revocation or restriction of the right to vote for a person or group, either explicitly by law or implicitly through discriminatory practices. It involves removing a person’s ability to participate in political processes, essentially stripping them of their voice and voting power.

Disinformation

• When information is put out with the specific intent to deceive. For example, manipulated information such as Deep fakes, falsified photos, and counterfeit websites. Information taken out of context, shortened citations, and faulty statistics. Purely fictional information as well, such as biased claims

Disparate Impact

• Impact refers to unintentional discrimination where facially neutral policies, rules, or practices disproportionately exclude or harm a protected group (based on race, sex, religion, etc.) without a valid business justification.

Diversity

• The presence of a wide range of human differences and varied identities within a group, community, or organization. It encompasses visible and invisible characteristics—such as race, gender, age, ability, religion, sexual orientation, and socioeconomic background—that shape how individuals experience the world.

Double-edge sword

• A policy, action, or technology that brings significant advantages while simultaneously carrying serious, often unexpected,

Due Process

• a constitutional guarantee (5th and 14th Amendments) that the government cannot arbitrarily deprive individuals of life, liberty, or property, requiring fair legal procedures instead. It mandates that all levels of government act within the law and provide notice and a fair hearing before taking action against individuals.

Procedural Due Process

• a constitutional doctrine requiring federal and state governments to follow fair, established procedures—typically notice, a hearing, and a neutral decision-maker—before depriving any person of life, liberty, or property. Grounded in the Fifth and Fourteenth Amendments, it ensures individuals can contest government actions, preventing arbitrary or unfair deprivation of rights.

Substantive Due Process

• a legal doctrine under which courts protect certain fundamental rights—even if not explicitly listed in the U.S. Constitution—from government interference. Derived from the Fifth and Fourteenth Amendments' Due Process Clauses, it prohibits the government from depriving individuals of "life, liberty, or property" without sufficient justification.

Economic marginalization

• The systemic process of pushing individuals or groups to the periphery of the economy, restricting their access to resources, quality employment, education, and wealth accumulation. It is a multidimensional issue rooted in historical injustice and sustained by social, structural, and market-based barriers, often disproportionately affecting minorities and low-income populations.

Election

• A democratic process in which the people vote for representatives, who then decide policy/laws.

Election Fraud

• Sometimes referred to as voter fraud, election manipulation, election scam, vote rigging, or election stealing, involves illegal interference with the electoral process, either by increasing the vote share of a favored candidate, depressing the vote share of rival candidates, or both.

Election Integrity

• Fair and free elections 

Electoral College

• The Electoral College is the process by which the United States elects the president and vice president. These offices are elected by electors, who are selected by political parties.

Equal Protection

• that a government must apply its laws fairly and cannot treat people differently without a valid reason. Individuals in similar situations should be treated alike under the law.

Equal Rights Amendment

• a proposed amendment to the U.S. Constitution designed to explicitly prohibit discrimination on the basis of sex, ensuring equal rights under the law regardless of gender

Equality

• The state of being equal in status, rights, opportunities, and treatment, ensuring everyone has the same resources and access regardless of background. It focuses on sameness, whereas equity involves tailoring support to achieve fair outcomes. Key types include legal equality (before the law) and equal opportunity.

Erosion

• refers to the incremental weakening of democratic institutions, norms, and civil liberties by elected leaders, rather than sudden coups. This decline often involves the erosion of election integrity, executive overreach, the suppression of the media, and intense polarization, transforming democracies from within. It is currently a global trend.

Executive Order

• A directive issued by the U.S president to federal agencies, managing operations of the executive branch

Executive Overreach

• occurs when the executive branch (president/administration) bypasses Congress or defies judicial oversight to unilaterally expand its power, threatening the U.S. constitutional system of checks and balances. This often involves acting outside statutory authority, manipulating federal funds, or issuing sweeping executive orders.

Extremism

• The advocacy of radical ideologies, often using violence, intolerance, or hatred to undermine democracy,  Human rights, and social cohesion.

Fair Elections

• A free and fair election is defined as an election in which "coercion is comparatively uncommon".