IB psych articles

Cognitive Articles + purposes

Multistore model: murdock/glanzer and cunitz

Working memory model: Landry and bartling

schema theory: Brewer and treyens/Martin and halverson
Methods: milner/loftus and palmer

Ethics: Brewer and treyens/loftus and pickrell

reliability of memory: Loftus and palmer/Yuillie and cutshall

Flashbulb memory: kulkofsky/sharot

dual processing model: Tversky and kahneman(framing)//Englich and mussweiler(anchoring)

murdock

Aim: The aim of the study was to see if the length of a list of words and/or the pace at which the words were read would have an effect on the serial position curve.
Method: Researchers gathered 103 psych students and participants were randomly allocated to one of 6 possible conditions where they would be shown varying amounts of words at varying frequencies. In half of the conditions the words were read at 1 word per second, and the other half had the words at 2 per second. The conditions were 20 words, 30 words, and 40 words all at 1 second intervals, and 10, 15, and 20 words at 2 second intervals. Each group was read 80 lists with the lists containing randomly selected from the 4000 most commonly used english words, excluding homonyms. once a list was read the participants were given 90 seconds to remember the words in any order. All groups were read 20 lists per session with the mean remembered words being calculated for each participant.

Findings: They found that though the practice effect was present, the largest growth was 1.13 words. Additionally there was no significant difference found in the pace of the presentation. A serial posotion curve was created for each condition. Each curve showed the greatest number of words was recalled at the end, followed by the beginning of the lists. The asymptote was most clear in the 40 word list, but due to the primacy effect intersecting with the curve, the 10 word list had no asymptote which is most likely due to the 7 ± 2 pieces of information we can remember.

Landry and Bartling

Aim: The aim of the study was to investigate if articulatory suppression would influence the recall of a written list of phonologically dissimilar letters in serial recall.

Method: 34 participants were either put into the experimental group or the control group. The experimental group had them see a list of letters that had to be recalled while saying the numbers 1 and 2 at a rate of 2 numbers per second. The control group saw the same list of letters but did not carry out the articulatory suppression task. there were 10 lists each consisting of a series of 7 letters chosen because they dont sound similar with each letter being presented one at a time. each participant was given a sheet with 7 blank spaces in each row. In the control group, the experimenter showed a printed list for 5 seonds and told participants to wait another 5 seconds, then told them to write the correct order of the letters on the answer sheet, and this was done 10 times. each trial was scored for accuracy.

Findings: The study found that the scores from the experimetnal group were much lower than the scores from the control group with the mean accuacy for the control group being 75% and 45% for the experimental. Though the means are very different, the SD was nearly identical at .13 for the control and .14 for the experimental and p<.01.

Brewer and treyens

Aim: The aim of the study was to investigate the role of schema in encoding and retrieval of episodic memory.

Method: The sample of 86 psych students were seated, one at a time, in a room made to look like an office with objects that were typical of an office, and items that were not typical of an office. Additionally all books were omitted. Each participant was told to wait in the office while researchers “checked to make sure the previous participant had completed the experiment.” the participant did not realize that the experiment had already begun. The participant was told to take a seat and because all other chairs had thigns on them, each participant sat in the same place. After 35 seconds the participants were called into another room and were told to recal whatever they could from the office. after the experiment the participants were given a questionaire where they were asked if they though they would have to remmeber objects form the office with 93% answering no. 30 participants carried out written recal then verbal recognition, 29 did drawing recal, and 27 did onyl verbal recognition.

Findings:

Loftus and palmer

Aim: The aim of the study was to investigate whether the use of leading questions would affect the estimation of speed.

Method: There were 45 participants divided up into 5 groups with the independent variable being the intensity word used when asked about an estimated speed. Using an independent samples design, each participant viewed 7 films of car wrecks taken from drivers educational films with clips ranging from 5-30 seconds. Once a driver watched a film they were asked to give an account of the accident and fill out a questionnaire with the most important question being the speed of estimation with the verbiage of this question changing based on condition. The question was “About how fast were the cars going when they hit each other?”, and the word hit was replaced by collided, bumped, smashed, or contacted.

Findings: The study found that smashed had the highest estimated speed of 40.8 and contacted had the lowest of 31.8 with a p < .005. These results indicate that the critical word consistently affected the participants answers, which the researchers argued was due to response bias. Because smashed may trigger a schema within the participant, they may be more inclined to respond with a higher value. Additionally, the memory was reconstructed which adds more uncertainty to the participants guess.

tversky and kahneman

Aim: The aim of the study as to test the influence of positive and negative frames on decision making.

Method: 307 volunteers were posed a hypothetical question on how they would treat hospital patients with one condition having a positive framing and the other having a negative. The hypothetical scenario was “imagine that the US is preparing for the outbreak of an unusual Asian disease, which is expected to kill 600 people. 2 alternative programs to combat the disease are as follows.” In condition 1, the positive condition, the choices were either A)200 people are saved, or B)take a 1/3 everyone is saved and 2/3 no one is. The negative framing was C)400 people will die, or D)1/3 no one dies with 2/3 everyone dies. It is important to note that A is the same as C and B is the same as D.

Findings: The study found that in the positive condition 72% choose program A but in the negative condition, 78% choose program D. These results clearly demonstrate the framing effect because despite the fact that A and C are the same, there is still a massive difference in results, but because one sounds like it saves more, people are more inclined to pick it due to loss aversion. Wang et al found that loss aversion appears more often in individualistic cultures, as well as in cultures with higher power distance.

Glanzer and cunitz

Aim: The aim of the study was to see the effect of the recency effect on memory.

Method: Researchers used a sample of 46 army men with a repeated measures design where the participants were given 3 5-word practice lists to learn the procedure. Then they were shown and read 15 lists of 15 common 1 syllable words by the presenter, and each word was shown for 1 seconds with 2 seconds between words. When the list concluded the participants either saw # or a number between 0-9. The # meant the participants had to write all numbers they could remember in any order and the number meant the participant had to start counting from that number. The researcher stopped them after 10 or 30 seconds.

Findings: When asked for immediate recal, primacy and recency effects were shown but with the 10 second delay, there was a significant reduction of the recency effect. Furthermore, the 30 second delay removed it entirely.

Loftus and pickrell

Aim: The aim of the study was to determine if false memories could be created through the power of suggestion

Method: prior to the study, the researchers contacted a family member of each participant and asked if they could remember 3 childhood memories of the participant, and if the participant was ever lost in a mall. The participants then received a questionnaire in the mail with 4 memories they were told to write about, then send the questionnaire back. 3 events were real while one got “lost in the mail” They were instructed to write “I do not remember this” if they didnt remember the event. Participants were interviewed twice over a period of 4 weeks. They were asked to recal as much information about the events as possible and rate their confidence from 1-10. They were also debriefed after the 2nd interview and asked if they could guess which was a fake memory.

Findings: about 25% of participants identified the false memory, however they also ranked this memory as less confident than the other memories and wrote less about it.

yuille and cutshall

Aim: The aim of the study was to determine whether leading questions would affect the memory in eye witness testimony.

Method: Researchers gathered participants that witnessed a robbing and shooting in vancouver. Researchers contacted the eye witnesses 4 months after the event and 13/21 agreed to do the interview. They gave their account of the incedent and were asked questions with 2 leading questions. Half of the group was asked if they saw a broken headlight and half were asked if they saw the broken headlight, but there was no broken headlight. The other question was if they saw a yellow panel on the car or the yellow panel, but the panel was blue. They were then asked to rate their stress that day on a 7 point scale.

Findings: The study found that the testimony was very reliable, which was verified by police records. They also did not make mistakes with the leading questions with nearly all of them either denying the existence of the made up objects or claiming to not remember it. These results contradict those from loftus and palmer, most likely due to the emotionally charged nature of the shooting.

Sharot

Aim: The aim of the study was to determine the potential role of biological factors on flashbulb memory.

Method: researchers gathered 24 people that witnessed the 9/11 attacks through advertisements. Participants were placed into an fMRI where they were presented with a list of words while their brain activity was monitored while they recalled the event. Memories from their summer served as a baseline for brain activity when evaluating the nature of 9/11 memories. After the brain scanning, participants were asked to rate their memories for vividness, detail, confidence in accuracy and arousal.

Findings: Only about half of the participants reported having a “flashbulb memory” and these people were reported to be closer to the twin towers at the time of the attack. Addtionally, it was found that activation of the amygdala for those downtown was higher than when they recalled events of the previous summer whereas those further from the attacks had similar levels of activation in 9/11 and the summer.

Englich and musswheiler

Aim: The aim of the study was to determine if a request for a prison sentence length would influence a judges decision.
Method: In a case for alleged r@pe 19 young trial judges, 15 male 4 female, with a mean age of 29 and mean experience of 9 months were chosen. In one condition prosecutor's demanded a 2 month sentence and in the other a 34 month sentence. Highly experienced trial judges were used to help develop the fake case with them recommending 17 months, which was the basis for the anchor. Participants were given the case materials with copies of the penal code and were asked to read through it to form an opinion. After reading they were given a questionnaire with half requesting 2 months and the other, 34. The questionnaire asked if the sentence was too high, low, or correct, then the sentence they would recommend. After they rated confidence from 1-9 and realism from 1-9.

Findings: The average realism rating was a 7.2 with a standard deviation of 1.3, but the confidence a 4.5 with SD of 2.3. Additionally when presented with a low anchor the mean sentence was 18.8 months SD 9.1 and the high anchor had a mean of 28.7 SD 6.5

Abrams et al

Aim: The aim of the study was to determine if in group identity would affect willingness to conform.

Method: Using an independent samples design to manipulate 2 variables, one condition had a Confederate from an in group and one with an out group. The other variable changed if the response was private or public. The experiment followed the Asch paradigm with 3 confederates who identified as a student from a prestigious psych program, in group, or an ancient history student, out group. The study always had the participant answer last. For the private condition, the participant was asked to record the others responses as they spoke aloud but was permitted to record their own in private.

Findings: 77% of participants conformed in at least one trial with no gender differences with the actual proportion of conforming responses being 32%, very similar to asch. The results show that social categorization plays a large role in public conformity. Public conformity extended the usual level while the out group was much lower because we tend to exaggerate the differences from ourselves and an out group.

social cognitive theory

learning occurs in a social context through observing, modeling, and imitating behaviors, often driven by vicarious reinforcement

Harris and Fiske

Aim: The aim of the study is to observe the role of the prefrontal cortex and the amygdala in reacting to out groups.

Method: Researchers gathered 22 uni students, half seeing pictures of objects and half seeing people, and asked them to rate a series of neutral photos as a control to ensure the participants understood the task. Then once put into the fMRI the participants were shown 6 sets of 10 pictures including various types of people, such as disabled, rich, old, Olympic athletes, and the homeless and were asked to choose which of the 4 emotions(pride, envy, pity, disgust) they correlate with the person.

Findings: The researchers found that there was a difference in brain activity when rating pictures of addicts or the homeless. In addition to the amygdala, the insula was activated which is what our brain uses when expressing disgust to non human objects such as garbage or waste. Additionally, the medial frontal cortex, the part of the brain that thinks about others or ourselves, did not activate which suggests that the participants did not register the addicts and homeless as people.

Berry

Aim: The aim of the study is to measure the level of conformity using the asch paradigm.

Method: Berry used 3 different cultures, the Temne who focused on rice farming, the Inuits who hunt and fish, and scots as a reference group. The first 2 were split into those who either had no western education or employment, and transitional who were those who had. scots were split into rural and urban. Directions for the asch paradigm were given by a native interpreter with a set of pre translated instructions and cultures were kept together. They were first asked which line most closely matched the top line, but on the 3rd trial the participants were given a "hint" that was most (in group) people say this line matches. For the 3rd trial the right answer was given but the remaining trials gave incorrect answers.

Findings: Collectivist cultures such as the temne were more likely to confirm to the group.

levine

Aim: The aim of the study is to see to effect of in group bias on helping others.

Method: researchers gathered 45 male students who identified as Manchester United fans and were told that they would be moving the experiment to another location. While walking a confederate fell down a hill and a different shirt was worn for each condition. One condition had the Confederate with a manchester united shirt, one with a white shirt, and one with a liverpool shirt.

Findings: The researchers found that when wearing a liverpool shirt the participants helped the least while almost everyone helped in the condition where the participant wore a Manchester United shirt.

Lueck and Wilson

Aim: The aim of the study is to investigate the variables that may predict acculturative stress in Asian immigrants and Asian Americans.

Method: Researchers gathered about 2100 Asian Americans with over half being first generation immigrants who were over 18 when they came to America. The rest of the sample was born to first generation parents with a wide variety of Asian cultures in the study such as Chinese, Filipino, and Vietnamese. The researchers used a semi-structured interview with researchers being picked that had similar cultural and linguistic backgrounds to the participant. The interviews measured a participants level of acculturative stress and impact of language proficiency, preference, and discrimination.Additionally a randomly selected sample of the participants were asked to validate the interview data.

Findings: The researchers found that in about 1400 of the interviews the participants were found to have acculturative stress. Asians who could speak both their native tongue and English were able to incorporate within a community with stress arising when they don't know their native language enough to discuss sensitive topics at home. Additionally, bilingualism can predict low acculturative stress, but a preference for English was shown to predict high stress.

Steele and Aronson

Aim: The aim of the study is to see how stereotype threat affects test performance in African Americans.

Method: 114 black and white, male and female undergrads tool a test similar to the SAT with the independent variables being race and test descriptions. The participants were told it was a test to diagnose intellect and its a test of problem solving. In the first condition verbal ability was tested while the the second focused on problem solving.

Findings: The researchers found that when the Africans believed they were being tested on intellect they performed worse than white people but were equal when they thought they were being tested on problem solving. They performed worse when the stereotype was being threatened but the same when it wasn't.

Bandura

Aim: The aim of the study is to observe the extent to which children will imitate aggressive behavior when given the opportunity.

Method: Researchers gathered 36 boys and 36 girls aged 37-69 months and divided them into 8 groups where each had a different model or level of aggression. (boy w aggressive boy, boy with calm boy, boy with aggressive girl, boy with calm girl, and same for girls). Baseline aggression levels were taken for each so that the kids could be matched to the other children in their group for additional control. The children were tested individually in a room with the model and a bobo doll. Within the 3 phases of the test the researchers would prime the children based on the condition assigned. Based on the condition, the model would act differently towards the bobo doll. The model for aggression would hit the bobo doll while the calm model may play with other toys.

Findings: The researchers found that males were more aggressive than girls and focused on physical aggression while the girls were more verbal. Additionally the children were more likely to conform to the models behavior if they were the same gender.

Joy, Kimbal, Zabrack

Aim: The aim of the study is to determine the effects of TV on children.

Method: Researchers found 3 small towns in canada and gave 2 of them a new channel while introducing TV to the 3rd. Researchers took baseline aggression levels before the introduction of the new channel/TV and 2 years after its introduction. Teachers monitored students behavior and the students viewing habits were also noted.

Findings: The researchers found that in the 2 towns that had TV previously there was minimal to no change, however the town that did not have access to TV prior had a significant increase in aggression. The children's favorite shows showed no difference between more/less aggressive students, but the increase in aggression can rather be explained by the heightened arousal that the TV provided.

Sociocultural Articles + purposes

Abrams/Levine: social identity theory

Bandura: Social cognitive theory

Harris and Fiske: Stereotype formation

Steele and aronson: Effects of stereotypes

Bandura/Levine: ethics

Berry/kulkofsky: cultural dimensions

Martin and halverson: enculturation

Lueck and Wilson: acculturation

Kulkofsky et al

Aim: To see if there is any difference in the rate of flashbulb memories in Collectivist/individualistic cultures.

Method: researchers gathered 274 middle class adults from 5 different countries who were given 5 minutes to recall as many memories as they can that happened within their lifetime. They were then asked follow up questions such as when the event was, how they learned about it, etc. Then they were asked about the events importance to them. Bilingual research assistance ensured that language Is not a confounding variable.

Findings: Researchers found that in Collectivist cultures personal importance and emotion played less role in flashbulb memories, however national importance was equal across cultures.

Martin and Halverson

Aim: The aim of the study is to investigate the role of gender schema on a child's ability to remember information

Method: The study had 48 kids, half boy half girl, 5-6 years old, and gave them a test to determine the level of stereotyping prior to the experiment. Then they were given 16 pictures one at a time that depicted things in line or out of line with gender stereotypes such as a girl playing with a doll, or conversely a girl playing with a gun. Then they were asked to say the gender of the person in the picture. A week later they were asked about 24 pictures, 16 they had seen and 8 they hadn't. The 8 were included for responsive bias. The kids were asked if they remembered a picture of something doing (activity) and asked to rate their confidence.

Findings: The study found that the girls remembered things in line with gender stereotypes while the boys remembered out of line things more often. Additionally, there was memory distortion that was in line with the kids schemas, such as a girl holding a hammer being remembered as a boy holding a hammer.

social identity theory

Milner

Aim: The aim of the study was to better understand the effects that the surgery had on HM. 

Method: Milner used a variety of methods such as psychometric testing, direct observation, interviews with HM and his family, and memory recall tasks. The variety of methods was useful to serve as method triangulation to ensure the validity of the results. 

Findings: His IQ came back as above average despite the fact that he could not acquire episodic knowledge, memory of events, or semantic knowledge, general knowledge. Researchers also found that he was able to draw a floor plan of his home meaning that some types of memory are not stored the same as semantic and episodic memory. When asked to remember a number after 15 minutes he was able to due to constant rehearsal however after the completion of the test he fully forgot it. Additionally he maintained any motor skills he had previously and was even able to improve in them over time, though he never remembered attempting the task. The damage to the hippocampus explains the inability to transfer short term memories into long term. Milner's research on patient HM illustrated the distinction between memory types, revealing that while episodic and semantic memories were impaired due to hippocampal damage, procedural memory remained intact. This demonstrated that different memory systems can operate independently.

Maguire

Aim: The aim of the study was to see if the brains of London taxi drivers would be different based on their knowledge of the city and how many hours they spend driving. 

Method: There were 16 participants, all right handed taxi drivers, and 50 control participants, all of which took MRI tests. Each participant had to have their license for 1.5 years and pass a knowledge test. There was also a range of ages that took part in the study. Because the IV was not manipulated by the researchers, the study is correlational. Data from the MRI was measured by voxel based morphometry(VBM), and pixel counting. VBM was used to study the density of grey matter in the brain and the pixel counting measured the area of the hippocampus.

Findings: They found that pixel counting revealed that the posterior hippocampus of taxi drivers was much larger than the control subjects and the anterior hippocampi was much smaller. Additionally VBM showed that the volume of the right posterior hippocampi was shown to correlate with time spent as a taxi driver. The rest of the brain was the same for both groups. These results show that the posterior hippocampus is where spatial information is stored. 

Draganski

Aim: The aim of the study was to see whether learning a new skill such as juggling would have an effect on the brains of participants. 

Method: 24 participants from 20-24, all non jugglers took an MRI scan at the start of the study to serve as a base rate for grey matter. Participants were either put into the juggling group or the non jugglers. Jugglers were taught a 3 ball juggle and were told to practice the routine and master it before notifying the researchers to take another MRI scan. After the scan they were told not to juggle anymore, and after 3 months another MRI was taken. The non jugglers served as a control. Voxel based morphometry(VBM) was used to analyze grey matter density. 

Findings: While grey matter was equal in the beginning, the jugglers showed a significantly larger amount of grey matter in the mid temporal area in both hemispheres, though this had decreased after the 3 months of not juggling. 

Prevot et al

Aim: The aim of the study is to see if the use of an agonist (imidazobenzodiazepine) to activate a5-GABA receptors would improve memory function.

Method: Researchers put mice in a Y-shaped maze as a task for spatial working memory. In the double blind experiment, the researchers either allocated the mice to the placebo group, the control group, or the drug condition.

Findings: The researchars found that the initial mice that had high working memory could alternate between the arms of the Y, but those with impaired memory would aimlessly wander the same arm. Then the experiment, the mice that took the drug performed almost as well as the unstressed mice, and in the condition where they were compared to young mice, they also almost met the same standard. Even though GABA receptors go down with age, the older mice, as well as the stressed mice,e were able to perform almost as well as the young or unstressed mice, respectively. Additionally, the researchers found that the drugged mice showed new hippocampal cell growth, reversing the effects of age and stress.

Antanova

Aim: The aim of the study is observe the role of ascetylcholine in the encoding of spatial memory.

Method: Reasearchers used a sample of 20 healthy men with a mean age of 28 in a double blind experiment. Participants were randomly allocated to either the placebo condition, or they were injected with scopolamine, an acetylcholine inhibitor, 70-90 minutes before the experimental task. The participants were then put into an fMRI where they were scanned while playing an arena task. Through this VR task, the researchers were able to observe how well the participants were at creating spatial memories as the participants looked for the pole hidden within the arena. Once acheived, the screen went black for 30 seconds while the participants were told to rehearse how to get back to the pole. Once the screen came back the participant was placed at a new starting point so they would have to rely on their spatial memory to return. The participants brain was measured for 6 trials and each partitipant was trained in the game to ensure they understood the task and how to accomplish it. 3-4 weeks later the test was repeated, receiving the opposite condition they did in the origional study.

Findings: The researchers found that when participants were injected with scopolamine, they demostrated a significant reduction in activity in the hippocampus, showing that acetylcholine could play a role in the encoding spation memories, not only in rats, but humans as well. Though there was a higher rate of error in the scopolamine group, there was not a significant difference, but hippocampus activity is. Without the use of the fMRI it wouldve been impossible to draw any conclusions, suggesting that the task was not the best for the test

What is the agonist used in prevot

imidazobenzodiazepine

wedekind

Aim: The aim of the study was to determine whether ones MHC gene would affect mate choice.

Method: Researchers gathered 49 women and 44 men and each had theur MHC type recorded with a wide variance in types. It was noted if a woman was taking an oral contraceptive. It was highly likely that the participants did not know each other as they were taken from different courses from the university they all attended. The men were asked to wear a t shirt for 2 nights and to keep the t shirt in an open plastic bag during eh day. They were given perfume free detergent to wash the clothes and bedclothes and perfume free soap for showering. They were also asked to not use any deodorants and refrain from smoking and drinking, to avoid spicy food, and to refrain from s3xual activity. 2 days later women were asked to rank the smell of 7 shirts, each in a box with a smelling hole. Women did the test when in the 2nd week of their menstrual cycle as they are the most sensitive to smell then, and they were given products to increase their smelling ability. 3 of the boxes contained shirts with MHC genes similar, 3 with different, and one unworn shirt as a control and the women rated the odor for intensity and pleasantness from 0-10.

Findings: The researchers found that the women scored odors highly when the gene was different from their own, however this was reversed when they took oral contraceptives, suggesting that the MHC gene may play a role in mate selection.

Caspi et al

Aim: The aim of the study is to determine whether there is evidence for a gene-environment interaction for a mutation of the serotonin transporter gene.

Method: Researchers looked at a sample of 850 26 year olds in new zealand and all had been assessed for mental health every other year until 21, and were tested for depressionThey were divided into 3 groups based on the gene, group 1 had 2 short alleles, group 2 had 1 short and one long, and group 3 had 2 long and roughly 43% have the shorter alleles. Participants then filled out a stressful life questionaire which asked about the frequency of 14 different events such as financial, employment, health, etc between the ages of 21-26.

Findings: They found that those who had inherited one or more short allele showed more signs of depression and sewer slide intentions in response to stressful events with the effect being strongest for those with 3 or more stressful events. Therefore, simply inheriting the gene does not cause depression, however it does make one more likely to develop it.

Clark and hatfield

Aim: The aim of this study was to investigate the prevalence of parental investment theory among college students.
Method: The sample consisted of 48 men and 48 women, along with a team of confederates who ranged from mildly unattractive to moderately attractive. Confederates approached members of the opposite gender who were total strangers. The confederates also only approached those who they would be willing to actually sleep with, and after, they rated the attractiveness of the naive participant. Once a participant was selected, they would say they find the participant very attractive and would ask for a date, to come back to their apartment, or to sleep with them. Questions were asked randomly, with no questions being asked between classes, and all participants were debriefed.

Findings: The study found that men and women were equally likely to accept a date, but almost exclusively men accepted the offer to go back to the apartment, and none of the women were interested in s3x.

Parental investment theory

Because women have to invest more time and energy into raising offspring, they are more likely to be more picky with mate selection than a man, and men are more interested in simply spreading their DNA.

Ronay and von Hippel

Aim: The aim of the study was to determine if men would take greater risk in the presence of an attractive female than in the presence of a male, and if testosterone played a role in behavior.

Method: Researchers gathered 96 skateboarders with a mean age of 21.6. Participants were recruited at skateboard parks with 43 being assigned to the male researcher condition and 53 put into the female researcher condition with tests being conducted from 2-6 pm. Skateboarders were asked to do one easy trick and one difficult trick they could do about half the time and do each trick 10 times. The attempts were catagorized as success, fail, or abortion. After a break they were asked to make 10 more attepts for each but this time with an attractive 18 year old woman researcher fully blind to the aim. During the study, heartrate was tracked through sports watches and saliva was taken at the end for testosterone.

Findings: The study found that participants took greater risks on the hard tricks when the female researcher was there by aborting the trick much less. Additioally, testosterone levels were higher in the men that did the trick for the woman than for the man, however there was no significant difference in heartrate.

Biological Articles + purposes

Brain localization: Milner/maguire

Neuroplasticity: maguire/draganski

Research methods: Milner/draganski

Ethics: Milner/ronay and von hippel

Brain imaging: Maguire/harris and fiske

Neurotransmitters: Antanova(antagonist)/Prevot(agonist)

Hormones: Ronay and von hipple

Evolution: Clark and Hatfield/ronay and von hippel

pheromones: wedekind

Genetics: Caspi et al

acculturation

The process of cultural and psychological change that occurs when people come into contact with a new culture. This involves adaptation to the language, values and behaviors being incorporated into the immigrants life, and often retaining aspects of the native culture

Enculturation