AP Psychology terms

Behavioral school of psych

A psychological perspective that emphasizes the study of observable behaviors and the importance of the environment in shaping behavior. It focuses on how external stimuli influence actions and reactions, often using principles of conditioning. (Nurture, environment, conditioning)

psychodynamic school of psych

A psychological perspective that emphasizes the influence of unconscious processes, early childhood experiences, and interpersonal relationships on behavior and mental states. It focuses on internal drives and conflicts as primary factors in human psychology. (Iceberg theory)

humanist school of psych

A psychological perspective that emphasizes personal growth, self-actualization, and the inherent goodness of people. It focuses on individual experiences and the importance of free will and human potential.

cognitive school of psych

A psychological perspective that emphasizes the study of mental processes such as perception, memory, and problem-solving. It focuses on how people understand, think, and learn, highlighting the importance of internal cognitive processes in shaping behavior.

biological school of psych

A psychological perspective that emphasizes the influence of biological factors such as genetics, brain structure, neurotransmitters, and hormones on behavior and mental processes. It focuses on how physiological processes impact thoughts, emotions, and actions. (Doctor perspective)

evolutionary school of psych

A psychological perspective that emphasizes the role of evolutionary processes in shaping behavior and mental traits. It focuses on how biological adaptations and natural selection influence human psychology and social behaviors.

sociocultural school of psych

A psychological perspective that emphasizes the importance of social and cultural factors in shaping behavior and mental processes. It focuses on how societal norms, values, and interactions influence individual psychology.

hindsight bias

The tendency to see events as having been predictable after they have already occurred, suggesting that outcomes were obvious or foreseeable.

confirmation bias

Only paying attention to data that supports your beliefs

Over confidence

Thinking you’re right when you’re wrong

Experiment

A method of research in psychology that involves manipulating one or more variables to determine their effect on a dependent variable, used to establish cause-and-effect relationships. (CAUSATION)

correlational study

A research method used in psychology that examines the relationship between two or more variables to determine if a change in one variable corresponds with a change in another variable. It does not imply causation.

case study

Small study used to understand the minority of the population (form of correlational study)

Naturalistic Observation

Watching with no comments, simply writing things down. (common with animals)

Meta-analysis

Comparing previous results and replicating previous studies.

independent variable

Manipulated in an EXPERIMENT

dependent variable

Measured in an EXPERIMENT

confounding variable

“third variable” - confuses research

operational definition

specific definition, usually with numbers. EX: “research team wanted to measure how smart Chris is, so they measured how many math questions Chris got correct on his exam.”

causation

Only established in an experiment.

Sample population

All the people in an experiment

random sampling/selection

HOW people were chosen to be part of an experiment. EX: “drawing a random sample of people from a town”

convenience sampling/sampling bias

non-random collection of research participants, leads to inaccurate results

generalizability

if the research applies to the general population

random assignment

Selecting control vs. experimental group randomly.

control group

Does not change, often the group that is given the normal things. EX: “one group of subjects saw a non-violent cartoon, compared to the other group which saw the violent cartoon”.

experimental group

the group that gets tested on, provides accurate results. EX: “one group of subjects saw a non-violent cartoon, compared to the other group which saw the violent cartoon.”

qualitative measurement

interviews, observations

quantitative measurement

Numbers (how much)

Likert scale

scale between 1-5 with 1 being the lowest and 5 being the highest

social desirability/self report bias

saying what you think sounds good rather than what is real. (EX: respondents to surveys often report they are healthier, happier, and less prejudiced than would be expected based on the results of other research)

informed consent

agreeing to participate in a study

protection from harm

protecting participants from any possible harm in a study

confidentiality

not revealing the participants identity at any given point

deception

researchers are not supposed to lie unless absolutely necessary

debriefing

talking with participants about the study such as what the goal was and if it was successful or not

positive correlation on a graph

coefficient = 0 to 1 (ex: hot outside, ice cream sales go up)

negative correlation on a graph

coefficient = -1 to 0 (ex: hot outside, winter coat sales go down)

mean

the average

median

middle number

mode

the number that appears most

range

the biggest number - smallest number

regression to the mean

extremes are not normal so more results yield to less extreme averages (should not draw any conclusions until get more people)

statistical significance

not likely due to chance

Negative skew

some low outliers pull overall average down

normal skew

mean, median, and mode are the same

positive skew

high outliers pull overall average up

standard deviation

how close to the average most scores are on a graph

validity

does the test reveal what was intended?

reliability

does the test reveal the same result each time?

replication

doing the same test over and over accurately

Nature

things you are born with (genes, heredity)

Nurture

things you learn over time (how you’re raised, friends and family influences)

sympathetic nervous system

fight or flight response

Parasympathetic nervous system

rest and digest (paramedic would want you to calm down)

sensory neurons

sensation

motor neurons

movement

multiple sclerosis

breakdown of myelin sheath

myasthenia gravis

autoimmune issue impacting connection between nerves and muscles

agonist

encourages neuron transmission

antagonist

discourages neuron transmission

refractory period

momentary break period in neural transmission process

reuptake inhibitor

prevents a neuron from reabsorbing messages from the synapse

cerebellum

hindbrain - balance, repetitive movement

corpus callosum

neural highway between hemispheres (labeled in green)

thalamus

first step for sensory information (EXCEPT SMELL)

hypothalamus

runs the endocrine system

hippocampus

memory

amygdala

emotion (fear)

Broca’s Aphasia

damage to the broca - loss of motor control

Wernicke’s Aphasia

damage to the Wernicke - loss of comprehension

motor cortex (frontal lobe)

area in the brain that sends messages to muscles

somatosensory cortex (parietal lobe)

area in brain that receives sensory information

frontal lobe

advanced thoughts - personality, decision-making

temporal lobe

hearing (temporal - temples, by your eyes)

plasticity

ability for the brain to adapt

long term potentiation

building '“muscle” in the brain

N-REM

all stages during sleep that aren’t REM sleep

REM

paradoxical sleep (low muscle tone, high brain activity)

activation synthesis

dreams as random neural transmission

consolidation theory

dreams as brain reviewing information from the day

absolute threshold

minimum amount of sensation needed to notice something

just noticeable difference

minimal amount of change needed to notice change

sensory adaption

getting used to a sensation (bright light)

sensory interaction

interplay between senses (smell + taste)

rods

photo receptor that notices light and dark

cones

photo receptor that notices color

trichromatic theory

cones for red, blue, green

opponent process theory

cones for shared pairs (red/green, blue/yellow) - think of after images

wavelength (sound wave)

pitch

amplitude (sound wave)

volume

vestibular sense

balance

kinesthetic sense

location of body in space (knowing where one part of your body is without looking, dancers are good at this)

Stimulant

speeds up nervous system (caffeine, cocaine)

depressant

slows down nervous system (alcohol)

opioid

reduces paid (heroin)

hallucinogen

altered sensations and thoughts (marijuana)

top-down processing

a cognitive approach where the brain uses prior knowledge, expectations, and context to interpret sensory information, moving from high-level concepts to lower-level specific (schema)

bottom-up processing

a data-driven approach to perception where the brain builds understanding from sensory input (light, sound, smell) rather than prior knowledge

visual perceptual constancies

understanding things stay the same despite visual change