PSYC 104: Final Exam Review

Psychology

The scientific study of behaviour and mental processes.

Wilhelm Wundt

Founder of modern psychology; established the first psychology laboratory in 1879 and used introspection.

Structuralism

Examined the structure of consciousness by breaking experience into basic elements.

Behaviourism

Behaviour is determined by the environment through stimulus-response relationships.

Cognitive Psychology

Study of thinking, memory, intelligence, decision making, and information processing.

Neuron

Basic unit of the nervous system that receives and transmits information.

Dendrites

Receive messages from other neurons.

Cell Body (Soma)

Contains genetic information and maintains neuron functioning.

Axon

Carries electrical impulses away from the cell body.

Resting Membrane Potential

Electrical charge of a neuron when inactive, approximately −70 mV.

Threshold Potential

Minimum stimulation needed to trigger an action potential, approximately −55 mV.

Action Potential

Rapid electrical impulse that travels down the axon; peaks near +40 mV.

Depolarization

Membrane becomes less negative and moves toward +40 mV.

Repolarization

Return toward the negative resting voltage after an action potential.

Hyperpolarization

Voltage briefly becomes more negative than the resting potential.

All-or-None Principle

Neuron either fires completely or does not fire at all.

Neurotransmitter

Chemical messenger released into the synapse.

Synapse

Gap between neurons where communication occurs.

Reuptake

Process by which neurotransmitters are reabsorbed into the presynaptic neuron.

Endocrine System

Network of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream.

Hormones

Chemical messengers transported through the blood.

Sensation

Process by which receptors detect stimuli and convert them into neural signals.

Perception

Organizing and interpreting sensory information to give it meaning.

Hue

The colour we perceive; determined by wavelength.

Intensity (Amplitude)

Amount of energy in a wave; determines brightness.

Saturation (Purity)

Degree to which a colour consists of a single wavelength.

Cornea

Transparent covering that begins focusing incoming light.

Pupil

Opening controlling how much light enters the eye.

Iris

Muscle that regulates pupil size.

Lens

Focuses light onto the retina by changing shape.

Retina

Contains rods and cones that convert light into neural impulses.

Rods

Responsible for black-and-white vision, peripheral vision, and low-light vision.

Cones

Responsible for colour vision and visual detail.

Optic Nerve

Carries visual information to the brain.

Image Formation Pathway

Light → Cornea → Pupil → Lens → Retina → Rods/Cones → Optic Nerve → Thalamus → Visual Cortex.

Consciousness

Awareness of oneself and the environment.

REM Sleep

Sleep stage associated with rapid eye movements and vivid dreams.

NREM Sleep

Non-rapid eye movement stages of sleep.

Circadian Rhythm

Biological cycle occurring approximately every 24 hours.

Narcolepsy

Uncontrollable episodes of sleep.

Insomnia

Difficulty falling asleep or staying asleep.

Sleep Apnea

Temporary interruptions in breathing during sleep.

Hypnosis

Heightened state of suggestibility.

Learning

Relatively permanent change in behaviour resulting from experience.

Classical Conditioning

Learning in which one stimulus comes to evoke a response originally produced by another stimulus.

Ivan Pavlov

Russian physiologist who discovered classical conditioning; Nobel Prize winner (1904).

Neutral Stimulus (NS)

Stimulus that initially does not trigger the target response.

Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)

Naturally produces a response without learning.

Unconditioned Response (UCR)

Unlearned response to a UCS.

Conditioned Stimulus (CS)

Previously neutral stimulus that gains the ability to trigger a response.

Conditioned Response (CR)

Learned response to a CS.

Acquisition

Initial learning phase in which CS and UCS are repeatedly paired.

Extinction

Gradual weakening and disappearance of a conditioned response.

Spontaneous Recovery

Reappearance of an extinguished conditioned response.

Law of Effect

Behaviour followed by satisfying consequences is likely to be repeated.

Operant Conditioning

Learning in which behaviour is controlled by its consequences.

B.F. Skinner

Developed the theory of operant conditioning.

Positive Reinforcement

Adding something desirable to increase behaviour.

Negative Reinforcement

Removing something unpleasant to increase behaviour.

Positive Punishment

Adding something unpleasant to decrease behaviour.

Negative Punishment

Removing something desirable to decrease behaviour.

Fixed Ratio Schedule

Reinforcement delivered after a fixed number of responses.

Encoding

Getting information into memory.

Storage

Holding information in memory over time.

Retrieval

Recovering information from memory.

Atkinson-Shiffrin Model

Sensory Memory → Short-Term Memory → Long-Term Memory.

Sensory Memory

Brief retention of sensory information lasting up to 2 seconds.

Iconic Memory

Sensory memory for vision.

Echoic Memory

Sensory memory for hearing.

Short-Term Memory (STM)

Temporary memory system with capacity of approximately 7 ± 2 items.

George Miller

Proposed the 7 ± 2 capacity of STM.

Long-Term Memory (LTM)

Memory system with virtually unlimited capacity and duration.

Serial Position Curve

Tendency to recall items at the beginning and end of a list better than items in the middle.

Primacy Effect

Better recall of items at the beginning of a list.

Recency Effect

Better recall of items at the end of a list.

State-Dependent Memory

Recall improves when emotional state at retrieval matches encoding.

Mnemonic

Memory aid that improves encoding and retrieval.

Retroactive Interference

New information interferes with old information.

Proactive Interference

Old information interferes with new information.

Paul Ekman's Basic Emotions

Fear, Anger, Disgust, Surprise, Happiness, Sadness, and Contempt.

Plutchik's Emotion Wheel

Model proposing eight primary emotions and their combinations.

James-Lange Theory

Emotions result from our perception of physiological arousal.

Motivation

Need or desire that energizes and directs behaviour toward a goal.

Drive-Reduction Theory

Physiological needs create drives that motivate behaviour aimed at reducing those needs.