IGCSE History Russia: Chapter 4

Living conditions in towns

• Moscow’s population increased from 2.2 million in 1929 to 4.1 million in 1936

• Leningrad’s population increased from 1.6 million in 1926 to 3.4 million in 1939

• the state was not prepared to spend its limited resources on building new housing.

• instead, the already small small apartments were divided, leading little room for each family. (4 square meters per family in 1940)

• some even lived in coal sheds, under-stair cupboards or communal kitchens

Housing in new towns

• initially people lived in tents or mud huts

• after housing conditions were slowly improved, their were simple, barrack-style dormitories

• new towns often also had unpaved roads, no street lighting, open sewers and a lack of public transport

Everyday items

• The FYPs focused on heavy industry so useful everyday items - like shoes and clothes - were not a priority

• For many people, stealing supplies from work became the norm for getting by.

• Due to problems caused by collectivisation, food had be rationed.

• The diet of the average worker was well below that of the average worker in 1900

Leisure opportunities

• The authorities were well aware of how difficult everyday life was.

• Working with an extremely low budget, they tried to develop leisure opportunities.

• Many towns had parks, football stadiums, athletics grounds, and cinemas.

Working conditions in towns

• health + safety = not a priority → accidents at work were common. Meeting targets was more important to Stalin than safe workplaces

• Internal passports were introduced to stop workers from changing jobs to find better employment.

• The rights of trade unions were restricted → managers could sack workers and set wages without having to gain approval from trade unions

• ‘Progressive piecework’ was introduced → workers were paid according to the amount they produced

• By the late 1930s, war with Nazi Germany was becoming increasingly likely. The armaments industry became a priority, and workers were urged to work even harder

However:

• Everyone had a job!

• Factories gave free clothing to workers and set up canteens which provided cheap, hot meals

• Childcare centres and laundry facilities were set up to ease the burden on women.

Living conditions in the countryside

• peasants did not get as much to eat as town workers because they were regarded as less important → some farmers travelled to town to find food.

• Peasants always had very basic housing. Typically, a one-room wooden hut, with an outside toilet + water taken from a well

• The villages received very little investment, and so they had none of the new leisure opportunities the towns had.

Working conditions in the countryside

• Peasants had lost their own land

• They were told what to do

• They had low wages - 20% of a factory workers wage

• Long hours + hard physical work - few tractors + machinery to help

• Lack of freedom - peasants could not leave farms unless granted access by an official

• As a result, peasants put little effort into farming

Women and family life in Russia before the communists

• Women were not considered equal to men

• They were not expected to be educated, pursue a career, have strong views, or live successful, independent lives

• Their role was to be an uncomplaining housewife and a mother.

• Domestic violence was common

Changes in family life caused by Bolsheviks

The Bolsheviks brought about these changes:

• A woman no longer had to take her husband’s surname. She also did not need his permission to get a job.

• Divorce was made much easier

• The Soviet Union became the first European country to legalise abortion

effects of changes in family life caused by Bolsheviks

However, the unintended consequences of these reforms began to become apparent in the 1930s. Divorce rates were too high, and men often used it to abandon their wives and children. The breakdown of families led to gangs of children on the streets who would beg, steal, and cause trouble.

Abortion rates were also extremely high, which was a problem in a time when lots of labour was needed.

Changes to family life brought about by Stalin

The Family Code of 1936 was released. It said:

• The family is the cornerstone of Soviet society

• The state no longer recognises unregistered marriages

• Divorce was made more expensive

• Abortion was illegal

• Being gay was illegal

• Mothers with 6 or more children will receive money from the state

In addition, propaganda was used to criticise men who failed to take their family responsibilities properly.

Changes in employment of women under Stalin

• The demand for labour was so high that women became a vital part of the Soviet workforce

• By 1940, there were 13 million female workers.

• Women were in jobs previously seen as reserved for men.

• By 1940, 41% of the workers in heavy industry were women.

• Despite this, there was still no equal pay - women doing the same jobs as men were only paid 60-65% of men’s wages.

• Women were also denied the opportunity to advance.

Changes in the political role of women

• Women had equal political rights to men

• A few women reached high-level positions in the government

Had women’s lives changed for the better by 1941 - NO

• Traditional sexist attitudes continued

• Women faced discrimination in the workplace

• Women were not able to play an important role in politics

• The Zhenotdel was closed down despite equality not being achieved

• Women faced the double burden: long hours in factories, followed by all the household tasks

• Women were still seen as primarily housewives and mothers.

Had women’s lives changed for the better by 1941 - YES

• Women played a key role in the economy

• They carried out jobs previously seen as male

• The state increased educational opportunities

• Women had equal political rights to men

• In large factories, women were helped by creches and laundry facilities

• A few women reached high-level positions in government and the economy

education policy in 1924

• Traditional methods of teaching had been left behind

• Instead, the ‘project method’ was used → this involved sending children to factories to work alongside workers.

Problems with education in the 1920s

• many children did not attend school

• too few schools

• schools were chronically underfunded

• often involved little more than children being used as cheap labour

• teachers were poorly trained

• teachers no longer had authority over kids

• very few students went to universities

education policy under Stalin

• children had to attend school until at least the age of 15

• examination, homework and rote learning of the ‘correct’ facts became the norm

• the teachers controlled the class with strict discipline

• students had to sit at desks in rows, facing the teacher with arms folded

• all schools had to teach reading, writing, the sciences, Russian, geography, and history, plus Communist ideology

• fees were introduced for the final 3 years of teaching

• in history, pupils learned about past Russian leaders

• official textbooks were provided by the state and had to be used

• school uniforms came back, including compulsory pigtails for girls

effects of education policy under Stalin

• Literacy rates rose from 55% in 1928 to 94% in 1939

• The number of students in universities increased from 170,000 in 1927 to 812,000 in 1939

• The percentage of primary-aged children attending school increased from 60% in 1928 to 95% in 1932

Early Soviet policies toward ethnic minorities

The Soviet Union was a multi-ethnic nation. An official policy set down after the October Revolution promised:

• equal treatment

• self-government

• freedom of religion

• the right to develop their own culture and lifestyle

They could even leave the Soviet Union if they wanted to become independent.

The Communists spoke about the Soviet Union as a ‘family of nations’

The treatment of ethnic minorities under Stalin

Stalin was considered an expert on national minorities, mainly because he was Georgian and so from a national minority himself

However, by the 1930s, Stalin had no desire to celebrate the Soviet Union’s diversity.

He was worried that too much independence would dilute the control of the Communist Party

He was worried that groups living near the border would not be loyal if the Soviet Union were invaded.

• Celebration of local language and culture was seen as a sign of disloyalty to the Soviet Union

• Russian language and culture was shown to be superior to others

• All schools had to teach Russian as the second language

• During the purges, many national minority leaders, teachers, artists, and writers were arrested.

Stalin was prepared to move whole national groups by force if he doubted their loyalty. E.g.:

• In 1937, over 171,000 ethnic Koreans were deported

• In 1941, when the Soviet Union was invaded, all the Volga Germans were arrested and exiled

• As Finland joined the war, 89,000 ethnic Finns were deported