BIG SET (Classes after exam 2)

Has up until 4/2

emotional memory

memory for emotionally arousing events that are typically more vivid

emotional memory modulation

process by which emotional arousal increases or decreases the strength and intensity of a memory trace

special vs general mechanism debate

emotional memory may rely on either specialized neural systems or the same systems as neutral memory but with stronger modulation

flashbulb memories theory

highly vivid and detailed memories for shocking events

thought to result from a special “now print” mechanism

flashbulb memory reality

these memories are often inaccurate over time despite high confidence and vividness

Phelps WTC study

amygdala activation during retrieval was stronger in individuals closer to the World Trade Center

amygdala anatomy

two amygdalae located bilaterally in the brain anterior to the hippocampus

amygdala hippocampus connections

strong bidirectional connections allow the amygdala to modulate hippocampal memory processes

amygdala function in memory

modulates both declarative and nondeclarative memory systems based on emotional significance

declarative emotional memory

conscious recollection of emotional events enhanced by amygdala

nondeclarative emotional memory

implicit emotional learning such as fear responses

parallel memory systems

a single emotional event produces both declarative (explicit) and nondeclarative (implicit) memory traces

shark attack declarative memory

vivid episodic memory of the event itself

shark attack nondeclarative memory

learned fear or anxiety about returning to the water or encountering sharks

amygdala hippocampal modulation-encoding

the amygdala enhances hippocampal encoding and consolidation of emotional events

medial temporal lobe (MTL)

includes hippocampus and surrounding cortex and supports declarative memory formation

encoding effects of emotion

emotional arousal increases attention and prioritization during encoding

consolidation effects of emotion

emotional memories undergo stronger and faster consolidation aided by stress hormones and neural connectivity

post event consolidation period

emotional memory strengthening continues after the event

retrieval effects of emotion

emotional memories are often retrieved with greater vividness and confidence

HPA axis activation

stress response system that

releases cortisol and

influences memory consolidation after emotional events

stress hormone effects

cortisol and related hormones can enhance or impair memory depending on timing and intensity

arousal

emotional intensity that is the strongest predictor of memory enhancement rather than valence alone

valence vs arousal

valence (is it pos or neg) arousal (how intense) both positive and negative events enhance memory but arousal level is the key driver

International Affective Picture System (IAPS)

standardized set of emotionally evocative images rated along arousal (x-axis) and valence (y-axis)

IAPS finding

arousal is a stronger predictor of memory performance than valence

individual differences emotional memory

personality and mental health factors influence emotional memory strength

neuroticism and memory bias

individuals high in neuroticism show stronger memory for negative stimuli and emotional events

PTSD risk and memory

individuals exposed to trauma may develop stronger emotional memories contributing to PTSD

lesion study method

examining behavior after brain damage to determine necessity of a brain region for a function

bilateral amygdala lesion

rare condition where both amygdalae are removed or damaged

patient DBB

individual with bilateral amygdala removal showing impaired emotional memory enhancement

DBB key finding

normal emotional ratings but significantly reduced recall for emotional stimuli compared to controls

amygdala lesion effect

abolishes emotional enhancement of declarative memory but leaves neutral memory intact

mechanism of lesion impairment

disruption of amygdala modulation of hippocampal consolidation processes

patient EP

individual lacking both amygdala and hippocampus demonstrating severe memory impairments and loss of emotional modulation

weapon focus effect

emotional arousal narrows attention to central details while impairing memory for peripheral details

selective emotional memory

enhancement of central details at the expense of contextual or peripheral information

amygdala stimulation hypothesis

direct activation of the amygdala can enhance memory similarly to natural emotional arousal

amygdala stimulation evidence

electrical stimulation studies show improved delayed memory for neutral stimuli

timing of amygdala stimulation

enhances memory after a delay but not immediately

causal evidence of amygdala

stimulation studies demonstrate the amygdala directly influences memory rather than just correlating with it

fear conditioning

form of nondeclarative learning where a neutral stimulus becomes associated with an aversive outcome

classical conditioning

learning process where a conditioned stimulus (CS) is paired with an unconditioned stimulus (US) to produce a conditioned response (CR)

conditioned stimulus (CS)

previously neutral stimulus that acquires meaning through association

unconditioned stimulus (US)

stimulus that naturally elicits a response without learning

unconditioned response (UR)

automatic response to the US

conditioned response (CR)

learned response to the CS

extinction

reduction of conditioned response after repeated presentation of CS without US

fear conditioning circuitry

involves lateral amygdala for learning and central nucleus for output of fear responses

lateral amygdala (LA)

receives sensory input and forms associations between CS and US

central amygdala (CE)

sends outputs to brainstem and hypothalamus to produce fear responses

fear responses

include freezing

phobia

excessive and persistent fear of a specific object or situation leading to avoidance behavior

phobia mechanism

hyper-reactive amygdala and threat detection systems causing exaggerated fear responses

contextual fear learning

learning to fear an environment or context rather than a specific cue

contextual fear neural basis

requires interaction between hippocampus (context representation) and amygdala (emotional tagging)

hippocampus in context

encodes spatial and contextual information for fear learning

amygdala in context

assigns emotional significance to contextual representations

stress vs emotion

stress involves both psychological and physiological responses and is related to but distinct from emotion

psychological stress

cognitive appraisal of a situation as threatening/ exceeding coping ability (perception of something as threatening)

physiological stress

bodily response involving autonomic nervous system and HPA axis activation

reward motivated memory

enhancement of memory due to motivation and reward-related processes

approach motivation

behavior directed toward obtaining rewards and associated with positive affect

avoidance motivation

behavior aimed at avoiding punishment and associated with negative affect

operant conditioning

learning process where behaviors are shaped by rewards and punishments

pigeon operant chamber

experimental setup demonstrating how rewards reinforce learned behaviors

primary reinforcers

rewards that satisfy biological needs such as food and water

secondary reinforcers

learned rewards such as money that gain value through association

adaptive role of memory

by storing outcomes of past experiences memory guides future decisions

memory prioritization principle

the brain selectively encodes information that is most relevant for goals and survival

reward motivated memory paradigm (cue)

cues signal potential reward value before encoding

reward motivated memory paradigm (outcome)

rewards or punishments delivered after responses influence later memory

incidental encoding

memory formation without awareness of a later memory test

reward anticipation effect

if an item is associated with expected rewards you have improved memory for that item

reward outcome effect

improved memory for items associated with receiving a reward

high reward context effect

enhanced memory for items presented in a context of repeated high reward cues

reward and associative memory

reward enhances binding of items to context

motivational broadening

reward increases attention scope

reward vs emotional attention

reward broadens attention while emotional threat can narrow it (weapon focus)

adolescent reward sensitivity

adolescents show stronger reward-related memory enhancement due to heightened reward system activity

reward pressure impairment

excessively high reward stakes can impair memory due to stress or over-arousal

intrinsic motivation

internal drive such as curiosity or interest that enhances memory

extrinsic motivation

external incentives such as money that influence behavior and memory

curiosity memory effect

increased curiosity enhances encoding and later recall

novelty seeking

individuals high in novelty seeking show stronger memory for new stimuli

positive affect memory effect

positive emotional states associated with reward enhance memory encoding

LUMeN lab findings

different rewarding experiences (money

reward system

network of brain regions including VTA

ventral tegmental area (VTA)

origin of dopaminergic neurons involved in reward and motivation

dopamine function

signals reward

mesolimbic pathway

dopaminergic pathway from VTA to ventral striatum involved in reward processing

mesocortical pathway

dopaminergic pathway from VTA to prefrontal cortex involved in cognition and decision-making

ventral striatum

key region in reward processing and reinforcement learning

vmPFC role

integrates reward value and supports decision-making

VTA hippocampal loop

pathway allowing reward signals to influence hippocampal memory processes

reward neuroimaging findings

enhanced memory associated with increased VTA and MTL activation and connectivity

functional connectivity in reward memory

stronger coordination between VTA

dopamine and LTP

dopamine enhances long-term potentiation in hippocampus

dopamine timing effects

can influence memory before