Psychology Core Concepts Chapter 7: Development Over the Lifespan

developmental psychology

The psychological specialty that studies how organisms grow and change over time as the result of biological and environmental influences.

nature-nurture issue

The long-standing discussion over the relative importance of nature (heredity) and nurture (environment) in their influence on behaviour and mental processes.

twin study

A means of separating the effects of nature and nurture by which investigators may compare identical twins to fraternal twins or compare twins separated early in life and raised in different environments.

adoption study

A method of separating the effect of nature and nurture by which investigators compare characteristics of adopted children with those of individuals in their biological and adoptive families.

innate ability

Capability of an infant that is inborn or biologically based.

prenatal period

The developmental period before birth.

zygote

A fertilized egg.

embryo

In humans, the name for the developing oragnism during the first 8 weeks after conception.

fetus

In humans, the term for the developing organism between the embryonic stage and birth.

placenta

The organ interface between the embryo or fetus and the mother. The placenta separates the bloodstreams, but it allows the exchange of nutrients and waste products.

teratogen

Substances from the environment, including viruses, drugs and other chemicals, that can damage the developing organism during the prenatal period.

fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS)

A set of physical and mental problems seen in children whose mothers drink excessive amounts of alcohol during pregnancy.

neonatal period

In humans, the neonatal (newborn) period extends through the first month after birth.

mimicry

The imitation of other people's behaviours.

synchronicity

The close coordination between the gazing, vocalizing, touching and smiling of infants and caregivers.

innate reflex

Reflexive response present at birth.

infancy

In humans, infancy spans the time between the end of the neonatal period and the establishment of language - usually at about 18 months to 2 years.

sensitive period

A span of time during which the organism is especially responsive to stimuli of a particular sort. Organisms may have sensitive periods for exposure to certain hormones or chemicals; similarly they may have sensitive periods for learning language or receiving the visual stimulation necessary for normal development of vision.

synaptic pruning

The process of trimming unused brain connections, making neurons available for future development.

maturation

The process by which the genetic program manifests itself over time.

contact comfort

Stimulation and reassurance derived from the physical touch of a caregiver.

attachment

The enduring socio-emotional relationship between a child and a parent or other regular caregiver.

imprinting

A primitive form of learning in which some young animals follow and form an attachment to the first moving object they see and hear.

secure attachment

The attachment style of children who are relaxed and comfortable with their caregivers and tolerant of strangers and new experiences - as contrasted with children who are insecurely attached.

separation anxiety

A common pattern of distress seen in young children when separated from their caregivers.

anxious-ambivalent attachment

One of two primary response patterns seen insecurely attached children in which child wants contact with the caregiver, shows excessive distress when separated from the caregiver, and proves difficult to console even when reunited.

avoidant attachment

One of two primary response patterns seen in insecurely attached children in which a child shows no interest in contact with the caregiver and displays neither distress when separated from the caregiver nor happiness when reunited.

pyschosocial stage

In Erikson's theory, the development stages refer to eight major challenges that appear successively across the lifespan, which require an individual to rethink his or her goals, as well as relationships with others.

trust

The major developmental goal during the first 18 months of life. According to Erikson's theory, the child must choose between trusting or not trusting others.

self-control

The ability to delay instant gratification in pursuit of longer-range positive outcomes.

executive function

Cognitive abilities in the frontal lobes necessary for complex thinking, planning and goal-directed behaviour.

language acquistion device (LAD)

A biologically organised mental structure in the brain that facilitates the learning of language because (according to Chomsky) it is innately programmed with some of the fundamental rules of grammar.

babbling

The production of repetitive syllables, characteristic of the early stages of language acquisition.

grammar

The rules of a language, specifying how to use the elements of language and word order to produce understandable sentences.

telegraphic speech

Short, simple sequences of nouns and verbs without plurals, tenses, or function words like the and of - somewhat like the language once used in telegrams.

morpheme

A meaningful unit of language that makes up words. Some whole words are morphemes (example:word); other morphemes include grammatical components that alter a word's meaning (examples: -ed, -ing and un-)

cognitive development

The global term for the development of thought processes from childhood through adulthood.

stage theory

An explanation of development that emphasizes distinctive or rather abrupt changes. A stage theory of cognitive development, then, emphasizes revolutionary changes in thought processes.

schema

In Piaget's theory, a mental structure or program that guides a developing child's thought.

assimilation

A mental process that incorporates new information into existing schemas.

accommodation

A mental process that modifies schemas in order to include (or accommodate) new information.

sensorimotor stage

The first stage in Piaget's theory, during which the child relies heavily on innate motor responses to stimuli.

sensorimotor intelligence

Piaget's term for the infant's approach to the world, relying on relatively simply physical (motor) responses to sensory experiences.

object permanence

The knowledge that objects exist independently of one's own actions or awareness.

goal-directed behaviour

An ability that emerges during the sensorimotor period by which infants develop the ability to keep a simple goal in mind as they pursue.

mental representation

The ability form internal images of objects and events.

preoperational stage

The second stage in Piaget's theory, marked well-developed mental representation and the use of language.

egocentrism

In Piaget's theory, the inability to realize that there are other viewpoints beside one's own.

animistic thinking

A preoperational mode of thought in which inanimate objects are imaged to have life and mental processes.

irreversibility

The inability, in the preoperational child, to think through series of events or mental operations and then mentally reverse the steps.

centration

A preoperational thought pattern involving the inability to take into account more than one factor at a time.

conservation

The understanding that the physical properties of an object or substance do not change when appearances change but nothing is added or taken away.

concrete operational stage

The third of Piaget's stages, when a child understands conservation but still is incapable of abstract thought.

mental operation

Solving a problem by manipulating images in one's mind.

theory of mind

An awareness that other people's behaviour may be influenced by beliefs, desires and emotions that differ from one' own.

wave metaphor

A way of conceptualizing cognitive development as occurring more gradually in "waves" - rather than abruptly, as the stage theory suggests.

scaffolding

A teaching strategy which emphasizes the role of help from others in providing support for a person's learning.

temperament

An individual's characteristic manner of behaviour or reaction - assumed to have a strong genetic basis.

socialization

The lifelong process of shaping an individual's behaviour patterns, values, standards, skills, attitudes, and motive to conform to those regarded as desirable in particular society.

authoritarian parent

One of the four parenting styles, characterized by demands for conformity and obedience, with little tolerance for discussion of rules, which the parent enforces with punishment or threats of punishment.

authoritative parent

One of the four parenting styles, characterized by high expectations of the children, which the parent enforces with consequences rather than punitive actions. Authoritative parents combine high standards with warmth and respect for the child's view.

permissive parent

One of the four parenting styles, charactierzed by setting few rules and allowing children to make their own decisions. While they may be caring and commnucative, permissive parents give most decision-making responsibility to their children.

uninvolved parent

One of the four parenting styles, characterized by indifference or rejection, sometimes to the point of neglect or abuse.

autonomy

In Erikson's theory, autonomy is the major development task of the second stage in childhood. Achieving autonomy involves developing a sense of independence, as opposed to be plagued by self-doubt.

initiative

In Eriskon's theory, initiatives is the major developmental task in the third stage of childhood. Initiative is characterized by the ability to initiate activities oneself, rather than merely responding to others or feeling guilt at not measuring up to other's expectations.

industry

Erikson's terms for a sense of confidence that characterized the main goal of the fourth development stage in childhood. Children who do not develop industry (confidence) will slip into a self-perception of inferiority.

attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)

A psychological disorder involving poor impulse control, difficulty concentrating on a task for a sustained period of time, high distractibility and excessive activity.

adolescence

In industrial societies, a developmental period beginning at puberty and ending (less clearly) at adulthood.

rite of passage

Social ritual that marks the transition between developmental stages, especially between childhood and adulthood.

puberty

The onset of sexual maturity.

menarche

The onset of mensuration.

body image

An individual's perception of and feelings about their physical appearance.

sexual orientation

The direction of one's sexual interests (usually for individuals of the same sex, the opposite sex, or both sexes).

formal operational stage

The last of Piaget's stages, during which abstract thought appears.

stage of moral reasoning

Distinctive way of thinking about ethical and moral problems. According to Kohlberg, moral reasoning progresses though a series of developmental stages that are similar to Piaget's stages of cognitive development.

identity

In Erikson's theory, identity is a sense of who one is - a coherent self. Developing a sense of identity is the main goal of adolescence.

revolution in aging

A change in the way people think about aging in modern industrialized nations. This new perspective grows out of increase longevity, better health care, and more lifestyle choices available to older adults. It has also stimulated the psychological study of adult development.

intimacy

In Erikson's theory, the main developmental task of early adulthood, involving the capacity to make a full commitment - sexual, emotional and moral - to another person.

emerging adulthood

A transition period between adolescence and adulthood.

peer marriage

Marriage in which the couple see each other as partners and friends, as contrasted with the older stereotypic roles of "husband" and "wife".

generativity

The process of making a commitment beyond oneself to family, work, society or future generations. In Erikson's theory, generativity is the developmental challenge of midlife.

transition

A period of time during which an individual redefines or transforms a life role, goal, value or lifestyle.

ego-intergrity

In Erikson's theory, the developmental task of late adulthood - involving the ability to look back on life without regrets and to enjoy a sense of wholeness.

Alzheimer's disease

A degenerative brain disease, usually notice first by its debilitating effects on memory.

selective social interaction

Choosing to restrict the number of one' social contacts to those who are the gratifying.