Motivation and Attitudes

Evolutionary Approach of Motivation

• role instincts play in motivation

• what humans do to surrive

Drive Reduction Theory/ Drive Theory

• focuses on drives vs. needs

• Need: lack or deprivation that will energize the drive

• Drive: the aroused state, fulfilling the drive will reduce the need

• The need-drive balance is what maintains homeostasis

• Ex: You are at gym and need for water. Trainer says you need to do more exercise. In this example, need: water, drive: thirst. Doing push ups is means to fulfill drive for water

Optimal arousal theory

people want to reach full arousal/alertness

Cognitive Theory of emotion

• rational and decision making ability

• thought processes drive behavior

Id

• innate

• seeks to discharge tension arising from internal needs or external stimulation

• made up of all instincts and wants to get rid of all uncomfortable feelings (Drive Reduction Theory)

Pleasure Principle

To gain pleasure or avoid pain

To accomplish this it uses: reflex actions, primary processes, wish fulfillment

Ego

The reality principle

Operates on secondary processes

Mediates the demands of reality vs desires of the id

The self - This is who we identify with / believe ourselves to be

Superego

Interalization of cultural ideals and parental sanctions

Inhibits Sexual and Aggressive impulses, and tries to replace reality with morality, striving for perfection

Incentive Theory of Motivation

calls attention to how factors outside of individuals (community values and other aspects of culture) can motivate behavior

Extrinsic vs Intrinsic Motivation

Extrinsic Motivation: rewards or obligated behavior (ex money or fame)

Intrinsic Motivation: internal motivation

Drive reduction motivation is motivation based on need to…

fulfill a certain drive like hunger or thirst

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

• A pyramid that says we have needs that must be fulfilled from bottom to top (SPECIFIC ORDER)

• There are 6 needs: Please Stop Liking Stupid Shit

1. Physiological needs: essential to survive / basic need (food water, breathing, sleep)

2. Safety: safety of employment, health, resources, property

3. Love: need to belong, acceptance from friends/family intimacy, love - social needs/belonging

4. Self esteem; feel confident and sense of achievement, recognition, competence of skill

5. Self actualization: one reaching to their max potential, differs from person to person (ex. one can want to be ideal parent, or ideal athlete)

Incentive Theory

Reward given after occurrence of an action with intension of causing behavior to occur again

Causes positive association to make a person happier

individuals are motivated to engage in behaviors that produce rewards or incentives

Sexual Response Cycle

1. Excitement phase: increased HR, muscle tension, BP

2. Plateau

3. Orgasm

4. Resolution/Refractory period

Sexual activities increased … which in turn increased sex drive

testoterone

Prolactin

related to sexual gratification and associated with relieving sexual arousal after an orgasm

Endorphins

produce feelings of euphoria and pleasure and are released post orgasm

Oxytocin

released after an orgasm to facilitate bonds and feelings of connectedness between sexual partners

Attitude

learned tendency to evaluate things (people, issues, events, object) in a certain way

3 components of attitude

1. Affective (emotional): feel emotions about a certain object, topic, subject

2. Behavioral: how we act or behave towards object/subject

3. Cognitive: form thoughts/beliefs and have knowledge about subject/topic that will influence and shape our attitude

ABC MODEL OF ATTITUDE

Theory of Planned Behavior

• Intensions + Implications: We consider our implications of our actions before we decide on how to behave

• Best predictor of our behavior is strength of these intensions and implications

Intensions are based on 3 things

1. Attitudes toward a certain behavior

2. Subjective norms: what we think others think about our behavior

3. Perceived behavioural control: how easy/hard we think it is to control our behavior

Attitude to Behavior Process Model

• An event triggers our attitude (something that will influence our perception of an object)

• Attitude + some outside knowledge together determines behavior

Prototype Willingness Model

• Behavior is a function of 6 things, the combination of which influences our behavior

1. Past Behavior

2. Attitudes

3. Subjective norms: what others think about our behavior

4. Our intensions

5. Our willingness to engage in a specific type of behavior

6. Models/prototyping

Elaboration Likelihood Model of Persuasion

• More cognitive approach - focuses on why/how of persuasion

• Central route of Persuasion: degree of attitude change depends on quality of the arguments by the persuader - ARGUMENT/WORDS ARE CENTRAL

• Peripheral route of Persuasion: looks at superficial/expertise/nonverbal persuasion cues such as attractiveness/status of persuader

People strive for … between their attitudes and behaviors

consistency

Is it possible for our behaviours to shape our attitudes?

Yes

Strong social pressures can strengthen or weaken attitudes to behavior connection

weaken

Foot in the door phenomenon

• Tendency to agree to small actions first, eventually overtime comply with much larger actions

• Door is eventually pushed open over time

Door in the face phenomenon

Role Playing

• everyone plays role in life

• in new role we try to fit into the role, but overtime what feels like acting starts to feel like you, our behavior of playing influences our attitude overtime

• Changing atttitude as a result of our behavior and carrying out that role

Effort Justification

people’s tendency to attribute a greater value to an outcome they had to put effort into acquiring or achieving

Cognitive Dissonance

discomfort experiencing when holding 2 or more conflicting cognitions → leads to feelings of discomfort which we want to alleviate

4 ways to reduce cognitive dissonance/discomfort

1. Modify our cognitions: change in cognition (thinking process) in a person’s action to reduce discomfort a person has with that attitude/behavior

2. Trivialize: make less important change the importance of their cognition

3. Add: adding more cognitions, to make contradictions more comfortable

4. Deny: denying the facts

People strive for … in our thoughts, actions, and words

harmony (want to decrease cognitive dissonance)

we modify our cognition to reduce cognitive discomfort, we don’t change our behaviors

As soon as our cognitions, our attitudes, and behaviors do not align, we have …

cognitive dissonance

Minimum Justification Principle

when someone does something and there is minimal justification for them doing it, this creates more dissonance than if they can explain it through a rationale

Situational Approach to Behavior

• We are placed in new situations everyday which affects our behavior

Social Psychology

• a branch of psychology that analyzes the situational approach to behavior and emphasizes influence of social phenomena and people interactions with each other on influence

• Focuses on interaction between individual and changing external environmental (situational) circumstances over internal traits and motivations

• One situation is NOT predictive of how someone will act in another situation, depending on situation the behavior might change

Attribution

• process of inferring causes of events/behaviors

• can either internal or external, our focus will be external

• inference a person is behaving a certain way based on situation they are in

3 main parts of external attribution

1. Consistency: does person usually behave this way

2. Distinctiveness: does person behave differently in different situations

3. Consensus: do others behave similarly in situation

Psychoanalytic Theory

says personality is shaped by childhood experiences persons unconscious thoughts/desires, feelings, and past memories

2 instinctual drives motivate human behavior

• Libido: natural energy source that fuels energy of mind for motivation for survival, growth, pleasure

• Death instinct: drives aggressive behaviors fuelled by unconscious wish to die or hurt oneself/others

Projection

projecting our own feelings of inadequacy on another

Reaction formation

defense mechanism where someone says or does exact opposite of what they actually want/feel

Regression

defense mechanism where one regresses to position of child in problematic situations

Sublimation

defense mechanism where unwanted impulses are transformed into something less harmful

Freud 3 parts of the mind

• id, ego, and superego which exist in either the unconscious or conscious mind

• conscious mind: top of iceberg is the conscious part of mind, mental functions you are aware of

• unconscious mind: bottom part of iceberg that is larger part of the mind, primitive, instinctual wishes and information that cannot be accesses

subconscious/precocious mind

consists of information that becomes accessible once you direct your attention to it (ex. memory recall)

Parts of the iceberg by Freud

1. Id at the bottom, unconscious, develops after birth and demands immediate gratification

2. Ego: part of conscious and unconscious, involves in our perceptions, thoughts, and judgements, and seeks long term gratification

3. Superego: develops around age 4, moral conscience, part of unconscious and conscious minds

Freudian slip

verbal, written or action based error that reveals unconscious thoughts, desires, or anxieties

Ex: Financially stressed patient, please don’t give me any bills - meant any pills

Psychosexual Development Theory by Sigmund Freud

• Explains how a person’s libido (sexual energy) develops in stages during childhood and how it shapes personality

• Oral stage (0 to 1): pleasure centers on the mouth

• Anal stage (1 to 3): focus on bowel and bladder control

• Phallic stage (3 to 6): focus on genitals

• Latency stage (6 to puberty)L sexual urges are repressed, focus on social and intellectual development

• Genital stage (puberty onward): mature sexual interest develop

Humanistic Theory by Carl rogers

• focuses on healthy personality development and humans are seen as inherently good

• most basic motive of all people is the actualizing tendency (self actualization), innate drive to maintain and enhance oneself to full potential

• people have free will

• person will grow towards self actualization as long as there are no obstacles

Primary difference between psychoanalytical theory vs humanistic theory

Psychoanalytic theory was deterministic - behavior is determined by unconscious desires

Humanistic theory focuses on conscious, people are inherently good, and self motivated to improve

Self actualization

• reaching your full potential and becoming the best version of yourself

• at the top of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs

• Focuses on growth, purpose, creativity, and fulfillment

Self esteem

• how much you value and respect yourself

• includes confidence, pride, and feelings of worth

Self efficacy

your belief in your ability to succeed at specific tasks (situation specific, not overall self worth)

How did Rogers differ from Maslow’s ideas of self actualization

• Maslow believes self actualization is rarely achieved

• Carl rogers says qualities Maslow described are nutured early in life and self actualization is a constant growth process nurtured in a growth promoting environment - actually believes people can reach it

• Growth is nurtured when individual is genuine

• Growth is nuturued through acceptance - unconditional positive regard from others

self concept

achieved when we bring geniuses and acceptance together to achieve growth promoting climate

Evolutionary psychology

theorizes males and females have different mating strategies that influence costs associated with passing on genes

males can have many mates, females more selective due to cost of pregnancy

Biologic theory of personality

important components of personality are inherited, or determined in part by our genes

Hans Eysenck

proposed extroversion level is based on differences in reticular formation (controls arousal and consciousness) - introverts are more aroused than extroverts so they seek lower levels of stimulation

Jeffrey Alan Grey (Biopsyhological theory of personality)

personality is governed by the behavioral inhibition (punishment/avoidance) and activation (reward system)

C. Robert Cloniger

linked personality to brain systems in reward, motivation, punishment

Social potency trait

degree to which a person assumes leadership roles and mastery of roles in social situations

Traditionalism

tendency to follow authority

People with longer _______ gene are more likely to be thrill seekers

dopamine 4 receptor

Temperament

more broad than personality

innate disposition, our mood/activity level, and is consistent throughout or life

Behaviorist theory

says personality is the result of learned behavior patterns based on a person’s environment - it’s deterministic

environment → BEHAVIOR

Operant conditioning

uses rewards to increase behavior and punishments to decrease behavior

Classical conditioning

• places a neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus to trigger an involuntary response

• Ex: Ringing a bell in presence of food causes dog to start salivating

• Neutral stimulus: bell

• Food: Unconditioned stimulus

What connects the observable (behavioral) to mental approach (psychoanalytic) approach?

Cognitive theory

Personality trait

stable predisposition towards a certain behavior

puts it in patterns of behavior

Surface traits vs Source traits

Surface traits: evident from a person’s behavior

Source traits: underlying human personality (more abstract)

Stable characteristic

causes individuals to consistently behave in certain ways

Myers Briggs Personality Test

4 letters that characterize you in 1 of 16 personality types which connect to set of traits/behaviors

Gordon Allport

• came up with list of different descriptive words for traits

• 3 categories of traits and individual have a subset of traits

1. Cardinal: direct most of person’s activities

2. Central: less dominant than cardinal

3. Secondary: preferences or attitude

A Cardinal named Allport Can Sing

Raymond Cattell

proposed we all had 16 essential personality traits that represent basic dimensions of personality → turned into 16 personality factor questionare

Hans Eysenck

we all posses traits which we express to different degrees

3 major dimensions of personality (all encompass just to different degrees expressed)

1. Psychoticism: degree to which reality is distorted

2. Extroversion: degree of sociability

3. Neuroticism: emotional stability

PEN

5 Factor Model (Big 5 personality traits)

• Found in all people of all populations

1. Openness: independent vs conforming

2. Conscientiousness: organized or not

3. Extroversion: talkative or quiet

4. Agreeableness: appreciative vs unfriendly

5. Neuroticism: stable vs tense (emotional stability)

OCEAN

Cattell, Eysenck, and Big 6 all use

factor analysis - statistical method that categorizes and determines major categories of traits (ALLPORT THEORY DID NOT)

Observational Learning (social/vicarious learning)

learned through watching and imitating others - modeling actions of another

mirror neurons found to support this

Social Cognitive Theory vs Behaviorism

SC: theory of behaviour change that emphasizes interactions between people and environment

Behaviorism: environment controls us entirely, cognition important

Bobo Doll Experiment

• Children learn behaviors through observation and imitation

• Watching adults act aggressively made children more likely to act aggressively

• Supports Social Learning Theory

Learning performance distinction

learning a behavior and performing it are 2 different things

Not performing does not mean you did not learn it

Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory

• AM I Motivated? Attention, Memory, Imitation, Motivation

Defense mechanisms

ways to protect ourselves - physchological shield against anxiety or discomfort of unconscious psychlogical processs

Pathological Defense Mechanisms

distort reality

ex: denial: person pretends something hasn’t happened

Immature defense mechanism

projection - throw your attributes to someone else

intellecutalization

taking intellectual aspects and detaching to the emotional aspects of the situation, separating emotions from ideas

rationalization defense mechanism

making yourself believe you were not on fault - avoids blame to oneself

can have false logic or false reasoning

regression

acting like a baby in situation

repression

unconscious process where thoughts pushed down to unconscious

displacement

person anger at someone but displaces it to someone else (a safe target)

reaction formation

unconscious feelings that make person to complete opposite

Sublimation

channeling negative to positive energy

Supression

conscious thoughts get pushed to unconscious but can access thoughts at a time later

altruism

in service of others

Pleasure principle

as a young child you want immediate pleasure to avoid suffering