Crime Hotspots Final

Law of crime of crime concentration : defined as measure of crime at a specific _________ geographic unit, the concentration of crime will fall within a _________ bandwidth of percentages for a defined cumulative proportion of crime

micro, narrow

The law of crime concentration was proposed by

David Weisburd

In order to test the validity of the law of crime concentration, Hipp and Kim used the _________ simulation technique based on _________ distribution because crime incidents are likely to be ____________ distribution

Monte carlo, poisson, poisson

Spatial unit of analysis means areal units for the analysis of ______ specific attributes , in other words, _____ is being studied

location, where

Theoretically _____ units are preferred, better measure physical and social environments. Residents behaviors are affected by physical and social surroundings only when they can perceive these environments with their senses and these environments are arguably _____

small, small

An issue in the analysis of spatial data arranged in zones, where the analysis result depends on a particular shape or size of spatial units of analysis

Modifiable Area Unit Problem (MAUP)

Error made in reasoning about differing units of analysis. Specifically, it is the error of data using generated at larger level and attempting to draw conclusions about smaller level.

Ecological Fallacy

Hotspots refer to _____ with higher than average crime rates.

street segment

Shaw and Mckay found delinquency rates were _____ correlated with distance from the ______ which is consistent with chicago school theory; the highest concentrated/rate of delinquency was found in the ______.

negatively, central business district, zone in transition

According to Shaw and mckay, delinquency, crime and deviance ______ with other social problems including poverty. Residential instability and racial/ethinic heterogeneity

spatially co - occurred

Samspon and Groves, social disorganization refers to the _____ of a community structure to realize the common values of its residents and maintain effective _____.

inability, informal social control

Socially disorganized neighborhoods are lacking in

social ties, social cohesion, integration (all of the above)

Collective efficacy refers to the linkage of _____ And_______, therefore it is more task specific

mutual trust, willingness to intervene

Routine activities theory explains hot spots in terms of .

presence of suitable, motivated offenders and lack of capable guardians. ( all of the above)

A capable guardian should.

be willing to intervene

Offenders discover targets through their.

Routine activities

According to RAT, as consumer electronic products grow smaller and lighter, theft rates will ______ because_______.

increase, more suitable targets

Spatial distributions of crime are best explained by theories of _____ and _____

social disorganization , routine activities

_______ theory argues that crime patterns are formed by routinized activities over time, and spatially constructed by ______ environments

crime pattern, physical

______ is a set of structural and physical settings that may be influenced or influence individuals' behavior and routine activities.

activity backloth

Social ties characterized by frequent interaction and emotional investment- often referred to as ______ ties are ideal for controlling crime in neighborhoods

strong

Place based criminological theories are based on a primary statement that crime is _______

spatially concentrated

___________proposed by robert sampson is meant to signify an emphasis on shared beliefs in a neighborhoods capability for action to achieve intended effect, coupled with an active sense of engagement on the part of residents. That is ________ is best conceptualized as a task specific concept that captures the perceived ability of a neighborhood to solve crime problems.

collective efficacy

Bursik and Grasmick(1993) ( hunter 1985) systematic model, organizations serve as a key source of social control by structuring social ties at 3 levels._____ exerted through intimates, friends,family. _________mobilized though broader network of acquaintances.________control embedded in public institutions.

private, parochial, public

In temporal dynamics of voluntary organizations, Wo and colleagues found that many organizations are consistent with the ____ impact scenario. Crime reducing effects of organizations typically not demonstrated until several years after being in the neighborhood.

delayed

______places where people spend most of their time and develop routine activities, such as home, workplace, shopping malls etc..

activity nodes

_________ are the street network configurations that connect, through which people move here to there for various activities

pathways

_________ are physical boundaries where noticeable changes are observed

edges

According to _____. Busier streets would encourage the public social interaction between regulars of street residents, business owners and employees. Consequently, active streets will have an effective system of social control, __________.

jane jacobs, eyes on the street

______theory proposed by _____________ argues that an area with a higher level of surveillance and less crime will have a high level of territoriality, which means a clear segregation between public and private spaces: clear distinction between my space and your space.

defensible space, oscar newman

Certain types of facilities are seen to be ______ because they draw a large number of people, some of whom may be potential offenders. By attracting more people to a place, they facilitate an increase of the number of potential offenders as well as potential victims.Unrelated to any particular level of criminal motivation they might have

crime generators

Other facilities are classified as ______ because they have reputations from criminal opportunities. They are places that do not necessarily bring together large groups at the same time, but their function makes them well suited for motivated offenders to find attractive and weakly guarded targets. Create well known criminal opportunities to which strongly motivated, intending criminal offenders

crime attractors

_____are crucial elements of physical environments, along which travel can occur. Studies theorize that they can affect the risk of crime in place because they determine the number of people at a given time or place. Thus affecting criminal opportunities and the level of guardianship

street network configurations

______ centrality indicates the potential traffic passing along a given street segment within a search radius on the street network. Thus, it captures how frequently individuals areas used during journeys from one location to other locations through street network along the shortest path

betweenness

Areas adjacent to physically visible boundaires will have _____ risk of ________criminal opportunities because they are less accessible and desirable for residents to live due to the physical and social environments around them

lower, fewer

In contrast, areas adjacent to physically visible boundaries will have _____ risk of crime because it is hard to cross boundaries, thus, _______ levels of social control among the residents across boundaries

higher, lower

______ are specific purposes assigned to the space to promote more desirable environmental outcomes as well as a more efficient use of resources. So ________ refer to activities, functions or operations an area has applied to its geographic space.

Land uses

According to Stucky and Ottensman (2009), most studies have assumed that _____ land uses independently ______criminal opportunities or ______ the potential for informal social control

nonresidential, increase, decrease

Jane jacobs (1961) recognized that the _____ in a place affects and reflects the quality of the built environments. Buchanan (1988) also commented that "urban design is essentially about place-making, where places are not just a specific space , but all the activities and events which made it possible" therefore, we should consider two important components of places 1.______ settings of place and closely related, 2. Level of _____ in place

social activity, physical, social activity

Level of ____ is defined as the combination of two distinct but closely related concepts: ______ and _____ (montgomery 1998)

social activity, vitality,diversity

For ______ , street life is a source of interest, bringing the eyes of a neighborhood's "natural proprietors" - residents and business owners- onto the street , with byproduct of monitoring and more effective natural surveillance.

jane jacobs

In contrast, ______ views pedestrian activity rooted in mixed land use as a source of anonymity on city streets. Commercial activity in the context of residential neighborhoods draws strangers or outsiders into urban neighborhoods, leading residents to withdraw from their responsibilities of managing public spaces around their homes.

oscar newman

According to beavon at al., _____ accessible streets will have _______ crime

less/less or more/more

Kim and Hipp introduced an _______ method to consider where people are from and go. This is because theoretically, the search process of motivated offenders to find suitable target is not random over space but near the travel paths between major routine activity nodes

weighted betweenness

Kim and Hipp found a ________ relationship between the betweenness measures and crime in place. That is, they found that more potential passers- by would initially have higher risk of crime, yet the pattern turns to crime -reducing after reaching certain threshold

curve-linear

Boggs first stressed the importance of measuring the ___population at risk for crime victimization, rather than simply the _____ population when computing crime rates. The_____ population is the population at a place at a specific time period.

ambient, residential,ambient

Hipp and colleagues argue that the _____platform is suited to measuring _____ population

twitter, ambient

Entry about who or which the researcher collects information

Unit of analysis

Areal units of analysis of location specific attributes

Where is being studied

spatial units

Conclusion depends on ( varies across) the particular shape or size of areal units of analysis

Selection of spatial units affects the analysis in terms of level of aggregation or placement of boundaries

Modifiable Area Unit Problem (MAUP)

Assumed that a statistical pattern observed at one spatial unit level is to hold at a more detailed (smaller level)

Draw conclusion about smaller unit level from the analysis on data at the larger units

Ecological Fallacy

We live the center of our "own" spatial boundaries, but not discrete, overlaps other people

Buffers around a block

Discrete Boundaries of Place?

overlapping spatial boundaries

Egohood approach (Hipp and Boessen, 2013)

inspired by plant and animal ecology

-based on competition for space

Social ecology of Park and Burgess (Chicago School)

Studied Chicago, early- mid 20th century

-rapid growth due to immigration, urbanization and industrialization

interested in the effects of these changes

Chicago School

1. Central Business District

2.Transitional Zone (immigrant groups)

-deteriorated housing

-factories

-abandoned buildings

3.Working Class Zone

-Single Family Tenements

4.Residential Zone

-single family homes

-yards/garages

5.Commuter zone

-suburbs

Park & Burgess: The concentric zone model

delinquency, crime and deviance co-occured with other social problems including poverty, residential instability and racial/ethnic heterogeneity

Social Disorganization Theory

(Shaw & McKay 1942)

Poverty, Residential Instability, Racial/ethnic Heterogeneity leads to social disorganization leads to crime

Social Disorganization Model

Sampson & Groves (1989)

-social disorganization as a social control theory

-ecological characteristics (population turnover, poverty/inequality, divorce rates/single parents) - social control (informal social control, collective efficacy, social ties)

Modern Social Disorganization Theory

The inability of a community structure to realize the common values of its residents and maintain effective social controls

- it is implied that residents, themselves, are capable of regulating unwanted (criminal) behavior

- informal social control

Social Disorganization refers to

informal regulatory behavior of the action of others

scope of collective intervention that the community directs toward local problems including crime

Definitions of informal social control

1.motivated offender

2.suitable target

3.absence of capable guardianship

root cause of crime is opportunity

Routine Activités Theory (Cohen and Felson, 1979)

spatially bounded routine activities are shaped largely by

physical environments

how individuals' behavior interacts with the built environment to produce different patterns of opportunities for crime

crime pattern theory (brantingham & brantingham)

set of physical and structural surroundings

Activity Backcloth

crime is an event is best viewed as as an action that occurs within a situation at a site on a non- static backcloth and it ____

is a product of varying initial conditions under which decision processes leading to criminal events unfold (brantingham & brantingham)

Busier streets- public social interaction

active streets will have a web of public respect and trust formed over time

New Urbanism -eyes on the street (Jacobs)

high level of territoriality, clear segregation between public and private spaces

potential offenders perceive areas less attractive for offending because it is more apparent who belongs to the area or not

Defensible Space (Newman)

results from high foot traffic, impairs residents' ability to detect suspicious crime related activity

anonymity

- affects offenders' awareness of potential targets

-criminogenic activity nodes are on the street network

-determines number and type of people in place

street network

Potential Offenders and targets

-more passing by movements - higher risk of crime, more criminal opportunitites

concept on neutrality

betweenness

pathways

potential usage of a given street segment via the street network taking the shortest routes

Betweenness

Spatial boundaries where noticeable changes are observed

-physically visible

rivers, park boundaries, freeways

-less physically visible

city boundary lines

Edges

Areas adjacent to physically visible boundaries will have lower risk of crime due to fewer criminal opportunities. Crime will increase when moving further away from the boundary with a distance decay function

Hypothesis 1 : Edges

Areas adjacent to physically visible boundaries will have higher risk of crime with a distance decay effect when moving further away. This is because of the low permeability crossing the boundaries, thus lower levels of social cohesion and informal social control among the residents across the boundaries

Hypothesis 1-2: Edges

population at a place at a specific time period

(spatio- temporal patterns of crime)

Ambient Population (Boggs)

crime embodies a social process that consists of

1. social mechanisms

2.Interdependency(between important spatial components social and physical environments)

counting only the highest offense and ignoring all others ex: Homicide before robbery

Hierarchy rule

if there is a separation of time and place between the commission of several crimes, the reporting agency must handle each crime as a separate incident

separation of time and place

-No hierarchy rule

-individual offense reporting

agencies are requires to submit detailed information about all offenses

more detailed information about the victim, offender, nature, offense, characteristics

Nibrs

UCR- Robbery

Burglary forced entry

larceny theft

motor vehicle theft

aggravated assault

robbery

Nibrs - report all of them as separate incidents

Burglary forced entry

larceny theft

motor vehicle theft

aggravated assault

robbery

Where does the land use data, Business data, and census data come from?

Crime data

analyze the data valuable to police agencies and their communities

crime analysis

map crime in different ways

defines as a set of computer based tools that allows the user modify, visualize, query, and analyze tabular data with geographic information

Geographic Information System (GIS)

term used un policing to refer to the process of conducting spatial unit analysis with crime analysis

it is process of using GIS to conduct spatial analysis of crime and other place based policing related issues

Crime Mapping

Density of point features around each point

The surface value is highest at the location of the point and diminishes with increasing distance from the point

Kernel Density (KDE)

A technique that let you create a smooth curve given a set of data

Proved to be the best hotspot mapping technique for predicting where crimes may occur in the future and spatial ellipses appeared to be the worst

KDE

A person who has come into a foreign country in order to live there

Immigrant

areas with greater concentrations of immigrants have lower rates of crime

Integration of immigrant s into American society (IEAS)

1. Home and movement near the home

- residential areas of immigrants

2.Daily activity locations and movements around those locations

-local ethnic businesses

3.Movement and travel between the daily activity locations

-distance between 1 and 2

IEAS

The aggregation of subgroups into global ethnic categories confounds cultural structural and political differences that may affect the adaption of the ethnic group to its new locale, field must try to recapture the rich racial and ethnic distinctions found in earlier studies

Bursik (2006)