PSYCH 001 Exam 2

Chapter 6-8

Learning

Stable acquisition of new knowledge, responses, or skills

Associative learning

states that ideas and experiences reinforce each other and can be mentally linked to one another

makes connections between stimuli and behavioral responses (dark clouds = rain)

Nonassociative learning

How behavior toward a stimulus changes in the absence of any associated stimulus

Habituation

reduced responding to a repeating or continuing stimulus (non-associative learning)

Sensitization

increased response to a repeating or continuing stimulus (non-associative learning)

Classical conditioning

the process in which an automatic, conditioned response is paired with specific stimuli

Unconditioned stimulus (US)

Naturally triggers response

Unconditioned response (UR)

Naturally responds to natural trigger

Conditioned stimulus (CS)

Initially irrelevant stimulus associates with US and triggers CR

Conditioned response (CR)

Learned response to previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus

Generalization

Tendency to respond to stimuli that are similar to CS

(Little Albert associating his fear of the white rabbit with other white furry things like Santa)

Discrimination

Learning to respond to a particular stimulus but not to similar stimuli, thus preventing overgeneralization (Distinguish)

Extinction

Reinforcement removed after CS is presented alone

Spontaneous recovery

The reappearance of an extinct behavior after delay

Contiguity

Closeness in time

Contingency

Predictiveness

Blocking

Prior association with a conditioned stimulus prevents learning of an associative with another stimulus

Counterconditioning

Used to counteract undesired associations by conditioning new responses to stimuli

(if someone has a fear of public speaking, counterconditioning may involve associating public speaking with positive experiences or rewards to alleviate the fear response)

Conditioned taste aversion

Where individuals are more likely to associate nausea with food than other environment stimuli

Operant conditioning

Where a learner makes associations between a voluntary behavior and its consequences and makes a behavioral change as a result

Law of effect

Behavior that lead to pleasing states of affairs will be repeated, and the opposite

(actions followed by positive outcomes are strengthened, and behaviors that are followed by negative outcomes are weakened)

Reinforcement

Increased likelihood of a behavior being repeated

Punishment

Decreased likelihood of a behavior being repeated

Primary reinforcement

Satisfy biological needs (food, sleep)

Secondary reinforcement

Something that has been conditioned to indicated biological need satisfaction (money)

things we have learned to value

Positive reinforcement

Addition of favored outcome (dog follows command, dog gets treat)

Negative reinforcement

Removal of unfavored outcome (get good grades, no more chores)

Positive punishment

Addition of unfavorable outcome (bad grades, add more chores)

Negative punishment

Removal of favored outcome (bad behavior, no dessert)

Premack Principle

Idea that activities individuals frequently engage in can be used to reinforce activities that they are less inclined to do

Shaping

The process by which random behaviors are gradually changed into a desired target behavior

Continuous reinforcement schedule

Reinforcement schedule in which a behavior is rewarded every time it is performed

Partial reinforcement schedule

Behavior is rewarded only some of the time

Fixed ratio schedule

Reinforcement after a specific amount of times the subject preformed desirable behavior

Variable ratio schedule

Reinforcement after unpredictable amount of responses (gambling, lottery)

Fixed interval schedule

Reinforcement after specific amount of time (reward every 30 sec)

Variable interval schedule

Reinforcement after unpredictable amount of time (1st reward - 1 min, 2nd reward - 5 min, 3rd reward - 3 min)

Superstitious conditioning

Form of operant conditioning where a behavior is learned because it was coincidentally reinforced, but has no actual relationship with reinforcement

Latent learning

Learning that occurs without either incentive or any clear motivation to learn

Observational learning

Watching and mimicking the behavior of others (Children kicking doll experiment - Albert Bandura)

Our mirror neuron system has been implicated in observational learning (money see, monkey do)

Social learning theory

Cognition, behavior, and environment influence each other when learning

Mirror neurons

Neurons that are active both when performing an action and when the same actions are observed by others

Vertical transmission

Transmission of skills from parent to offspring

Horizontal transmission

Transmission of skill between peers

Diffusion chain

Process in which individuals learn a behavior by observing a model and then serve as models from whom others can learn

Pavlov

Studied salvation in dogs, and inadvertently began the study of learning

Memory

The capacity to store and retrieve information in order to facilitate learning

Encoding

The process of taking information from the world, including our internal thoughts and feelings, and converting it to memories

Storage

The maintenance of information in the brain for later access

Retrieval

Process of bringing to mind previously encoded and stored information

Multistore model of memory

Model proposing that information flows from our senses through three storage levels in memory: sensory, short term, and long term

Sensory memory

Storage love of memory that holds sensory information on the order of milliseconds to seconds (echoic processing is longer than iconic)

Short term memory

Storage level of memory where information can be held briefly, from seconds to less than a minute (either stored more permanently or forgotten)

Long term memory

Storage levels of memory where information can be held for hours to many years and potentially a lifetime

Iconic memory

A rapidly decaying store of visual sensory information

Echoic memory

A rapidly decaying store of auditory sensory information

Neural persistence

Continued activity in neurons after a stimulus ceases, which rapidly fades

Chunking

The process of grouping stimuli together in chunks in working memory to increase the amount of information stored in short term memory

Working memory

Manipulation of information in addition to just storage (ability to hold information while doing complex task)

Rehearsal

The holding of information in the brain through mental repetition

Phonological loop

Similar to hearing your inner voice

Visuo-spatial sketchpad

You minds eye, allows you to see mental images

Central executive

Allows you to manipulate information in short term memory (engages regions of the frontal cortex)

Recency effect

Shows increased recall toward the end of the list

Primary effect

Shows increased recall toward the beginning of the list

Amnesia

The loss of memory due to brain damage or trauma

Levels of processing

Multiple levels at which encoding can occur ranging from shallow to deep

Shallow encoding

Encoding based on sensory characteristics, such as how something looks/sounds

Deep encoding

how deep we process information when we encounter determines whether we will encode it (association)

Semantic encoding

Focuses on the meaning of events (connecting)

Self referential encoding

Encoding based on an events relation to our self concept, leading to an enhanced memory of an event

Explicit memory

Involves intentional and conscious remembering

Implicit memory

Occurs without intentional recollection or awareness and measure through influence of prior learning behavior

Procedural memory

Related to acquisition of skills

Priming

Increased ability to process a stimulus because of previous exposure

Affective conditioning

A previously neutral stimulus acquires a positive or negative value

Episodic memory

Involves explicit recollection of personal experience that requires piecing together the elements of that time and place

Semantic memory

Explicit memory supporting knowledge about the world, including concepts and facts

Retrospective memory

Memory for things we have done in the past

Prospective memory

Memory for things we need to do in the future

Consolidation

The process where memory storage is integrated and becomes stable in the brain (occurs after experiences have passed) - best consolidate during sleep

Reconsolidation

Reactivation of consolidation by retrieving a memory, making the memory susceptible to change

Long term potentiation (LTP)

A mechanism that creates enduring synaptic connections, which results in increased transmission between neurons

Flashbulb memory

A vivid memory for an emotionally significant event, though to be permanent and detailed, as if frozen in time

Free recall

Accessing information from memory without any cues to aid your retrieval

Retrieval cues

Information related to stored memories that helps bring the memories back to mind

Cued recall

Form of retrieval that is facilitated by providing information related to the stored memory

Recognition

Form of retrieval that relies on identifying previously seen or experienced information

Encoding specificity principle

The idea that retrieval is best when the present context recreates the context in which information was initially coded

State-dependent retrieval

Increased likelihood of remembering when a person is in the same state during both encoding and retrieval (drunk while encoding, drunk while retrieval)

Mood-dependent retrieval

Increased likelihood of remembering when a person is in the same mood during both encoding and retrieval

Forgetting curve

The retention of information over various delay times

Trace decay theory

If a person does not access and use memory, the memory trace will weaken/decay over time

Retroactive interference

The disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information

Proactive interference

occurs when old information or knowledge interferes with the learning of new information

Tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon

Failure to retrieve information despite confidence that its stored in memory

Motivated forgetting

Willful forgetting of information so that it is less likely ro be retrieved later

Misinformation effect

The decreased accuracy of episodic memories because of information provided after the event

Infantile amnesia

The inability of adults to retrieve episodic memories from the first few years of life

Reminiscence bump

A time of prominent memory making between adolescence and early adulthood