Gender

Biological determinism

a simple causal approach that explains human behaviour in terms of biological or genetic characteristics (Nature)

Social construction of reality

theory that examines the development of jointly constructed understandings of the world (Nurture)

Socialisation theory

• Infants are seen as blank slates, through interactions infants learn what sex has been attributed to them and what is expected of them as little girls or boys → acquisition of gendered identities

• Reinforcement (praise and other rewards for gender appropraite for deviation) 

• Children internalise these gender prescriptions of their society 

e.g. adults respond differently to boys/girls (Fagot et al, 1985)

• Boys demand attention by behaving aggressively, crying, whining or screaming 

• Adults respond to girls only when they used language, gestures or gentle touches – girls who use attention-grabbing behavior were likely ignored 

e.g. Parents are more likely to engage their infant sons in rough physical play e.g. tossing them in the air, rather than with daughters (McDonald & Parke 1986)

Explanation: Children internalise gender norms
Critique: It assumes that children are passive receivers of gendered messages from the environment 

• Robinson & Morris (1986) – Research shows that very young children often make gender-stereotyped choices for themselves, whereas toys selected by grown-ups tended to be sex-neutral (art supplies, games, musical instruments) 

Patriarchy (Sylvia Walby, 1989)

argue gender inequality is structural and institutional. 
Sylvia Walby (1989) identified six structures of patriarchy: 

• paid work  

• household  

• culture  

• sexuality  

• violence  

• the state  

expalnation: This shows inequality is embedded across multiple areas of society.

Critique: argue this may overgeneralise women’s experiences and ignore diversity. 

Gender inequality in labour market

Evidence:

Although FLFP has risen dramatically, Gender wage gap still exists and will take around 4 decades to converge (Bryson et al, 2020)

• UK Average Gender pay gap = 6.9% (ONS, 2025) (among full-time employees across all jobs in the UK, women earn 6.9% less per hour on average than men) (for every £1 a man earns, a woman earns 93p)

Horizontal gender segregation: the separation of men and women into jobs in different industries at similar prestige levels (England et al, 2007)

• 92% nurses = women

• 93% armed forces = men

Vertical gender segregation: men dominate lucrative leadership jobs within the same industry e.g. doctors while women are concentrated in comparatively lower paying jobs e.g. nurse (England et al, 2007)

Explanation:
Critique: Some argue differences reflect choice

Gendering the body - Hegemonic masculinity (R. W. Connell, 2005)

Point: Dominant form of masculinity maintains power
Evidence: Leadership + authority linked to men
Explanation: Ideal man = dominant, competitive, emotionally restrained
Critique: Masculinity is changing over time

Do all women experience inequality in the same way?

Intersectionality (Crenshaw, 1989)

• intersectionality perspective on race and ethnicity argues that people's experiences of privilege and oppression are shaped by the interplay of their various social identities, which cannot be understood in isolation from one another 

• Identity categories intersect (not additive, multiplicative). 

• Experiences of oppression differ by context (Yuval-Davis, 2006). 

• Example: Chee, Yeoh & Lai (2022) – Bangladeshi men in Malaysia navigate race, religion, nationality through marriage and work. 

Why does gender inequality exist accoridng to Conflict theory

Point: Gender inequality results from power struggles over economic resources.
Friedrich Engels argued in The Origin of the Family, Private Property and the State (1884) that patriarchy emerged with private property, making women economically dependent on men.

Evidence:

• Contemporary conflict theorists suggest that when women become wage earners, they can gain power in the family structure and create more democratic arrangements in the home, although they may still carry the majority of the domestic burden (the double disadvantage) (Rismanand and Johnson-Sumerford 1998)

Explanation: Economic inequality + domestic labour divisions reinforce male power in the household and labour market.

Critique: Conflict theory may overemphasise economic factors, ignoring cultural norms.
Example: leadership behaviour judged more negatively for women (Eagly et al., 1992).