Anthro 4 Midterm

langue vs. parole

langue refers to the underlying system of language, including rules, structures, and conventions of language (language system in abstract) whereas parole is everyday speech, such as words or phrases used by people (Saussure)

competence vs. performance

competence is the abstract and unconscious knowledge of the rules of language (grammar, vocab, syntax) whereas performance is putting your ideas of the language into practice (Chomsky)

differences in what linguistic anthropologists versus linguists might study

linguistic anthropologists focus on questions in regards to culture and social interaction as it affects language, whereas linguists focus more on language development and classifications.

phonology

the study of sound in language, to know a language you must recognize and produce the sounds and phonemes. Or in some cases the nonverbal gestures.

morphology

the study of the internal structure of words or morpheme __a unit of meaning__ to separate the meaning of a words individual part

syntax

the structure of sentence structure

semantics

the study of the meaning in language such as analysis of words and sentences

pragmatics

the study of the use of language such as narratives and performances; implicative language

Saussure

decontextualize the study of language by keeping elements of culture separate, abstract knowledge of language is more important than performance, indexicality example of a link and a pattern such as a the word tree making you think of a tree, defined a speech community(body of linguistic data abstract from social analysis)

Chomsky

universal grammar or ug is the basic grammar of all human language, language acquisition device, reduce language to abstract biological and cognitive dimensions, syntax is his area of most influence, view language acquisition as a process children and their parents have little control over 

Whorf

language shapes thought and culture, linguistic relativity or categories, language->thought->culture and back, influence of language on perception, grammaticaL categories such as habitual, obligatory, and unconscious; color, space, time.the nature of power, the nature of human agency, the opposition between universality and diversity.

Peirce

semiotics(the study of signs), meaning making has three components; signs that stand for something, objects that are what the sign stands for, interpretation are the image the sign creates for the object. There are three types of signs; icon(object referred to by similarity), index( categorical), symbol(virtue of convention), very related to indexical signs. Meaning making and iconics

Goffman

verbal interactions and multimodality,(involve shifts in footing during conversation)

Ochs & Schieffelin

self lowering(simplifying speech) and child raising (addressing the child as linguistically competent); language socialization

Labov

debunked language gap, speech communities. Sociolinguist interested in differences in speaker identity and social identity in speakers and how that manifests in the way they talk. 

multifunctionality

the idea that language serves many functions and is multimodal, beyond simply communicating information, it communicates values, attitudes, and serves many functions. it can reveal and reinforce hierarchy, convey values, create multimodal dissonance to resist authority, and shapes many things about our experience. it is important to recognize the multifunctionality in anthropology because it is through that, that we are able to understand the encompassing human experiences of language.

language ideology

ideas we hold about language, that aren't necessarily good or bad, but are beliefs about language and its use. language ideologies can create and reinforce inclusion, as well as exclusion and racism. examples of language ideologies are, “you should speak with formal english grammar.” “we should preserve all languages.” “words are just as powerful as actions.” being able to recognize these ideologies is important because it influences how people use language, and perceive language, including ourselves as anthropologists.

practice

the way in which language is actually used. the action and lived experience of language, as opposed to its formal existence alone. The way in which humans realistically interact with language. this is important because this is the largely human and anthropological part of our study of language.

indexicality

The identification of precise ways where language and social relations intersect. For example, words like "here," "there," "now," and "then" are indexical because their meaning depends on the spatial and temporal context of the utterance. Indexicality is important because it highlights the way in which language is not just a system of symbols with fixed meanings, but is instead a dynamic tool for communication that is shaped by the social and cultural context in which it is used. It also shows how language use can be used to signal social and cultural identity, as well as to establish and maintain social relationships.

Jakobson’s multifunctional model

Jakobson's multifunctional model, also known as Jakobson's functions of language, is a model developed by the linguist Roman Jakobson in the 1950s. The model proposes that language has six functions, or aspects, that are always present in any act of communication and emphasizes the idea that language is not just a tool for conveying information, but is also a social and cultural tool that is used to establish and maintain social relationships, express emotions and attitudes, and create aesthetic effects. The model also highlights the fact that different functions of language can be emphasized in different contexts, depending on the communicative goals of the speaker or writer.

habitus (and its relation to language)

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the circumstances under which we are conditioned as humans informs the way we exist, and often results in a simultaneous creation of those same systems that conditioned us. relating this to language, the way in which we are habituated to practice language creates the structures for said habituation itself. we are both a product of our environment (and language), as well as creators and constructors of that same environment (and language).

Icon (peirce)

direct natural association to the thing it represents. Refers by similarity, for example “meow” due to what it represents.

index (peirce)

 points to something it represents. smoke points to fire for example

symbol (peirce)

abstract or arbitrary association to the thing it represents, refers to object through convention. for example, a red hexagon means “stop.”

indexicality and references to space and time

Indexicality is closely related to references of time or space because expressions that refer to time or space are often inherently linked to the context in which they are used. For example, the expression "now" is an indexical because its meaning depends on the time at which it is used. Similarly, the expression "here" is an indexical because its meaning depends on the location of the speaker.

Here's an example that illustrates the indexical features of references to time and space:

"Can you meet me at the restaurant on Main Street at 7 PM tonight?"

In this example, the expressions "restaurant on Main Street" and "7 PM tonight" are both indexical because their meaning depends on the context in which they are used. The phrase "restaurant on Main Street" is indexical to the location of the speaker, as it assumes that the speaker and listener are in the same geographic area. The phrase "7 PM tonight" is indexical to the time at which the speaker is making the request, and its meaning will change as time passes.

The indexical features of these expressions are important because they help to situate the communication in a specific time and place, and to establish a shared context between the speaker and listener. Without these indexical references, it would be difficult to understand the meaning of the request, as it would lack the necessary context to give it meaning.

examples of indexical features

1. Personal pronouns: Words like "I," "you," "he," and "she" are indexical because their meaning depends on the identity of the speaker and the listener. For example, the word "I" means something different when spoken by different people.
2. Spatial references: Words like "here" and "there" are indexical because their meaning depends on the location of the speaker and listener. For example, the word "here" means something different when spoken by someone in New York than it does when spoken by someone in London.
3. Temporal references: Words like "now" and "then" are indexical because their meaning depends on the time at which they are used. For example, the word "now" means something different when spoken at different times of the day or in different contexts.
4. Deictic expressions: Words like "this," "that," "these," and "those" are indexical because their meaning depends on the proximity of the object being referred to. For example, the word "this" means something different depending on whether the speaker is pointing to an object nearby or an object far away.
5. Speech acts: Utterances that perform a speech act, such as making a promise or giving an order, are indexical because their meaning depends on the context in which they are used and the relationship between the speaker and the listener.

participant observation

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watching people in the circumstance, often impromptu note taking, taking in surroundings in the moment. researcher develops personal understanding of norms.

interviews

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asking questions in a degree of pre-planning, could have structured questions, could have some ideas of topic but flexible, or could be completely flexible. answers will be less transparent.

surveys

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more of a quantitative method of collecting data, conventionalized questions administered indirectly. can collect large pooled data across participants.

recording natural language

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using recordings, audio and sometimes also video to reference later and for study.allows for deep analysis but through recording we change the context and nature of conversation

experiments

elicit speech or behavioral responses, control elements of the environment, compares different languages or groups

* matched guise: same person, different languages or accents, control for natural variation in voice features

qualitative data

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this is data that focuses on looking more in depth at human behavior by understanding from the perspective of those being studied

quantitative data

this data is numerical and can be counted 

animator (goffman’s three roles of speaker)

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the person giving life to or voicing the language. the literal speaker, the voice actor, etc.

author (goffman’s three roles of speaker)

the person who composed the speech, could be the speaker, could be a speech writer, could be a screenplay writer, etc.

principal (goffman’s three roles of speaker)

the person whose ideas are represented, the ideals conveyed. Could be the animator, could be the author, or in instance of animation/tv, would be the actual fictional character for whom the language was written

shifts in footing

Shifts in footing are when the the role of the speaker changes such as code switching and shifting from the roles above

self-lowering

on the part of the caregiver, where they simplify their speech, and ask questions, I already know the answer to as a way of communicating to an infant.

child-raising

treating a child is more competent linguistically then they really are.

poverty of the stimulus (Chomsky)

The acquisition of language obviously requires 'input' (aka 'a stimulus') which would be the utterances that are spoken to the child. Chomsky argues that the stimulus the child is exposed to is simply too poor (hence 'poverty of') to explain how the child can acquire such a complex system as the mental grammar.

how people use gesture

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* It can replace words and concepts 
* Demonstrates interaction or symbolism while interacting with the environment such as pointing (deictics) are indexical
* Emerges spontaneously, and can be used as reinforcement of speech

gesture in early development (words + gestures)

\*lecture example of the experiment where participants hands were positioned in front of them and unable to move > preventing hand gesture > speech disfluencies

\*in children, gesture precedes language and used as a starting point

Gesture precedes and predicts language > helps children make sense of the world around them (not just language, but culture and societal expectations)

\*certain gestures are reinforced through certain phrases/words

Early sentences = 1 gesture + 1 word

Noun modification = point + noun

change in pitch versus vowel

Pitch is changed by the speed of vibration in your vocal chords. Can change your pitch even with the same vowel. The pitch is determined by how fast your vocal chords are vibrating. Vowel placement varies from front-back of the mouth

places and manners of articulation for consonants

**Manners:** column

**Places:** row

two main propositions of language socialization

1. Language is learned through social interaction: Language socialization researchers emphasize that language learning is a social process that occurs through interaction with other speakers. Children learn to use language by observing and imitating the speech of others, and by receiving feedback and guidance from more experienced speakers. This social interaction is shaped by cultural norms and values, and helps to transmit these norms and values to the next generation.
2. Language is culturally and socially situated: Another key proposition of language socialization is that language use is shaped by cultural and social factors. Language use is not simply a matter of acquiring a set of grammatical rules, but is closely tied to cultural practices, values, and beliefs. For example, the way in which language is used to show respect or politeness varies across different cultural contexts, and children must learn these cultural norms and conventions in order to use language appropriately in those contexts.

relevance of law students and hair dressers to language socialization

different fields, social groups, and subdivisions of humanity have different language norms, practices, and terms. law students are expected to know a unique set of terminology. also, law students are unique in how they engage with the author, speaker, and principal. they may author things in favor of beliefs and logic that they do not personally agree with.

cultural differences in infant-directed speech

US: baby talk, Motherese; US is predominantly a neontocracy (?)

Kaluli: children = soft and dont understand > have older children speak to baby > mother speaks for the baby as they sit on their lap

speaks high pitched, but assertive and with language/actions the baby can't do; baby’s actions commented on but growing child not directly referred to

Language not simplified

Samoan: early noises not language but communication of physical needs

Language not simplified and prompted to speak in certain way to others; adults don't try to decipher speak, child has to learn to be effective speaker

\*use ergative markers, but learn much later in childhood than other cultures

linguistic relativity

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language influences thought or worldview – Sapir-Whorf hypothesis

linguistic determinism

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language determines thought, forces speakers to think in a certain way

mis/overinterpretation of linguistic relativity

some scholars were arguing that people in certain societies were incapable of complex, abstract, "scientific" thought because of the seeming lack of "logical" grammatical categories in their languages

Eskimo words for snow

Just because we don’t have a specific word for light snow, like the eskimo people, doesn’t mean we can’t perceive it

spatial frames of reference (evid for linguistic relativity)

Different languages use different spatial frames of reference to describe the location of objects or events. For example, English speakers tend to use an egocentric frame of reference, where objects are described in relation to the speaker's body (e.g. "the book is to my left"). In contrast, speakers of some indigenous languages use an allocentric frame of reference, where objects are described in relation to fixed landmarks in the environment (e.g. "the book is to the west of the tree"). Research has found that speakers of different languages tend to rely on the spatial frames of reference used in their language when performing spatial tasks, suggesting that language can shape spatial cognition.

spatial categories (evid for linguistic relativity)

Different languages use different categories to describe spatial relationships. For example, English uses categories like "in," "on," and "under" to describe the relationship between objects and their location. In contrast, some indigenous languages use categories that are based on the shape or orientation of the objects (e.g. "long and skinny," "round and bumpy"). Research has found that speakers of different languages tend to have different ways of categorizing spatial relationships, and that this can affect how they perceive and remember spatial information.

operationalizing a variable of study

to determine and try to create a solid system of standardization for a variable. To create an “operation” through which it can be controlled and/or understood.

speech community

* e.g. women’s volleyball and men’s basketball have their own communities 


1. Frequent interaction
2. Shared “verbal repertoire” – niche slang that others may not understand


1. Don’t have to share a dialect/language
3. Shared set of norms (language ideologies)


1. Not all members must speak the same way


1. “The speech community is not defined by any marked agreement in the use of language elements so much as by participation in a set of shared norms”
2. More so just shared speech/norms

community of practice

* e.g. all athletes on campus 


1. Mutual Engagement
2. Joint Enterprise
3. Shared Repertoire 


1. Focused on the social engagement of members; what people are doing/how they are interacting

Gumperz’s 3 requirements for speech community

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1. Members must have frequent interaction
2. Members must share “verbal repertoire,” even though they may not all speak the same style, dialect, or language
3. Members must share set of social norms, regarding appropriate language use – “language ideologies”

speech register

linguistic repertoire that is associated (culture internally) with particular social practices and with persons who engage in such practices. 

approximate number of languages in world

7,000? This is only counting languages, not dialects.

diglossia

a kind of ranking of different languages based on social classes; it 

characterizes languages as high class and low class.

How languages (typically 2) are used for a specific purpose 

code-switching

Moving between different forms of languages depending on who you’re talking to, (might have fuzzy language for informal speaking and more enunciated language when talking to official people)

code-mixing

Combining multiple languages into one as a way of potentially describing something more accurately, an example is Spanglish.

literacy vs. literacies

**Literacy** is more general; a universal literacy of language in itself.

**Literacies** are more specific; depending on the context you are in, you may have a varying degree of literacy. As such, you may be very literate in one societal context, but less literate in another (e.g., informal talk v. professional environment)

literacy event vs. practice

**Event**: activities/events that involve literacy, written language is important; e.g., reading, 

texting, etc. 

**Practice**: general norms as to how written text tends to be interpreted, discussed, and produced

referential function (context)

 to communicate pure information. “that is a rock”

expressive function (addressee)

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to communicate emotions or attitudes of the speaker. 

conative function

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engages addressee directly; showing interest. “Tom! Let’s dance!”

poetic function(Message)

word choice (diction)

phatic function (contact)

reaching out to connect, establishing connection or maintaining relationships. “are you doing ok?”

metalinguistic function (code)

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discussion about language itself. “why can’t i say the right things”

iconic gesture

gesture has a natural direct association with speech content (this is a type of representational gesture)

emblematic gesture

iconic gestures that have conventionalized meaning (this is a type of representational gesture)

metaphoric gesture

abstract connection to the speech content (this is a type of representational gesture)

deictic gesture

indexing gesture, pointing to something

beats gesture

can mark separation in narrative, counting, or emphasis