The History and Scope of Psychology

A complete set of vocabulary terms and definitions from the lecture notes covering the history, perspectives, and research methodologies of psychology.

empirical approach

an evidence-based method that draws on observation and experimentation.

critical thinking

thinking that does not automatically accept arguments and conclusions. Rather, it examines assumptions, appraises the source, discerns hidden biases, evaluates evidence, and assesses conclusions.

structuralism

an early school of thought promoted by Wundt and Titchener; used introspection to reveal the structure of the human mind.

functionalism

an early school of thought promoted by James and influenced by Darwin; explored how mental and behavioral processes function—how they enable the organism to adapt, survive, and flourish.

behaviorism

the view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. Most psychologists today agree with (1) but not with (2).

humanistic psychology

a historically significant perspective that emphasized human growth potential.

cognitive psychology

the study of the mental processes involved in perceiving, learning, remembering, thinking, communicating, and solving problems.

cognitive neuroscience

the interdisciplinary study of the brain activity linked with cognition (perception, thinking, memory, language).

psychology

the science of behavior and mental processes.

nature-nurture issue

the longstanding controversy over the relative contributions that genes and experience make to the development of psychological traits and behaviors. Today's science sees traits and behaviors arising from the interaction of nature and nurture.

natural selection

the principle that the inherited traits enabling an organism to survive and reproduce in a particular environment will (in competition with other trait variations) most likely be passed on to succeeding generations.

evolutionary psychology

the study of the evolution of behavior and the mind, using principles of natural selection.

behavior genetics

the study of the relative power and limits of genetic and environmental influences on behavior.

culture

the enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, values, and traditions shared by a group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next.

positive psychology

the scientific study of human flourishing, with the goals of discovering and promoting strengths and virtues that help individuals and communities to thrive.

biopsychosocial approach

an integrated approach that incorporates biological, psychological, and social-cultural levels of analysis.

levels of analysis

the differing complementary views, from biological to psychological to social-cultural, for analyzing any given phenomenon.

basic research

pure science that aims to increase the scientific knowledge base.

applied research

scientific study that aims to solve practical problems.

counseling psychology

a branch of psychology that assists people with problems in living (often related to school, work, or relationships) and in achieving greater well-being.

clinical psychology

a branch of psychology that studies, assesses, and treats people with psychological disorders.

psychiatry

a branch of medicine dealing with psychological disorders; practiced by physicians who provide medical (for example, drug) treatments as well as psychological therapy.

community psychology

a branch of psychology that studies how people interact with their social environments and how social institutions (such as schools and neighborhoods) affect individuals and groups.

hindsight bias

the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it. (Also known as the l-knew-it-all-along phenomenon.)

theory

an explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviors or events.

hypothesis

a testable prediction, often implied by a theory.

operational definition

a carefully worded statement of the exact procedures (operations) used in a research study.

replication

repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding can be reproduced.

preregistration

publicly communicating planned study design, hypotheses, data collection, and analyses.

meta-analysis

a statistical procedure for analyzing the results of multiple studies to reach an overall conclusion.

case study

a descriptive technique in which one individual or group is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles.

naturalistic observation

a descriptive technique of observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation.

survey

a descriptive technique for obtaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of a particular group, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of the group.

random sample

a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion.

population

all those in a group being studied, from which random samples may be drawn.

correlation

a measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus of how well either factor predicts the other.

correlation coefficient

a statistical index of the relationship between two things (from $-1.00$ to $+1.00$).

experiment

a research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors (independent variables) to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process (the dependent variable). BY random assignment of participants, the experimenter aims to control other relevant factors.

experimental group

in an experiment, the group exposed to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variable.

control group

in an experiment, the group not exposed to the treatment; contrasts with the experimental group and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment.

random assignment

assigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between the different groups.

double-blind procedure

an experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are ignorant (blind) about whether the research participants have received the treatment or a placebo.

placebo effect

experimental results caused by expectations alone; any effect on behavior caused by the administration of an inert substance or condition, which the recipient assumes is an active agent.

independent variable

in an experiment, the factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied.

confounding variable

in an experiment, a factor other than the factor being studied that might influence a study's results.

dependent variable

in an experiment, the outcome that is measured; the variable that may change when the independent variable is manipulated.

informed consent

giving potential participants enough information about a study to enable them to choose whether they wish to participate.

debriefing

the postexperimental explanation of a study, including its purpose and any deceptions, to its participants.

testing effect

enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading, information. Also referred to as a retrieval practice effect or test-enhanced learning.

SQ3R

a study method incorporating five steps: Survey, Question, Read, Retrieve, Review.