AP Pysh

evolutionary Perceptive

Ideates natural selection can be applied to behavior and mental processes. Some theorist have mis applied evolutionary principles to discriminate agaisnt others through eugenics

Twin studies

which compare concordance rates between mono-zygotic (identical 100% shared genes) and dizgotic (fraternal 50%)

Adoption studies

which separates genetic vs adoptive parents

Family studies

which examine trait patterns across related individuals

Central nervous system

Consits of the brain and spinal cor. The brains process virtually all information while the spinal cord serve as the communication highway and can execute simple reflex arcs without the brain involvement.

Peripheral nervous system

Includes all neural tissues outside the CNS connecting it to the muscle, organs, and sensory receptors through sensory nerve pathways.

Somatic nervous sytem

Part of the PNS. Control VOLUNTARY processing like muscle movement . Also transmit sensory information from skin and sense organs to CNS

Autonomic nervous system

Also part of the PNS. Control INVOLUNTARY functions- heart rate,digestion, glandular activity, pupil,dialiation. it operate without conscious effort

Sympathetic nervous system

ANS branch activating the fight flight freeze response accelerates heart rate, dilates pupils, inhibits digestion and mobilize energy for emergency action.

Parasympathetic Nervous System

ANS branch promoting rest and digestion slows heart beay, constricts pupils, stimulates digestion, returns the body to baseline

Endocrine System

Communicating through chemical messengers called hormones released into the bloodstream. Slower than neural transmitters but effect last longer and reach widespread body streams body system. The pituitary gland directed by the hypothalamus is the master gland that regulates other hormone producing glands

Gial cells

provide structure insulation communication and water transport

Sensory neurons

carry information from sensory receptors to the CNS

Motor neuron

efferent: carry commands from the CNS to muscles and glands

Reflec arc

In the spinal cord, sensory neurons, inter neurons and motor neurons work together to produce rapid involuntary response

All or none principle

A neuron either fire a complete action potential or does not fire at all

Multiple sclerosis/myasthenia gravis

Disorders that can result from disruptions to this process

Synaptic transmission

Once neurotransmitter are released from the synaptic vesicle into synaptic cleft. They then bind to receptors sites on the dendrite of another neuron

Exciatory

depolarization make an action potential more likely

Inhibitory ( hyperpolarization)

make an action potential less likely

Reuptake

the process by which the pre synaptic neuron reabsorbs excess neurotransmitters from the synapse ending the signal. Re uptake block the reabsorption of neuron transmitters, increasing their concentration in the synapse

Antagonist

Binds to receptors and blocks the real NTs from acting as normal

Agonist

Binds to receptors and acts as the NT would essentially adding to number of NTS

Acetycholine(ACh)

Enables Voluntary muscle contractions at neuromuscular junctions and plays a crucial role in attention arousal and memory formation. Alzhemirs’s disease involves the progression death of ACh producing neurons explaining the memory loss.

Dopamines

Regulates the brain;s reward and pleasure pathways. motivation, and VOLUNTARY movement. Excess dopamine activity is linked to positive symptoms of schizophrenia ( hallucination, delusion) Deficient dopamine in motor pathways causes Parkinson’s disease(tremors, ridgity)

Serotonin

Modulates mood stability, sleep wake schedules, apatite, impulse control. Low serotonin is linked to depression anxiety disorders and OCD.

GABA

Insufficient GABA is associated with anxiety disorders and seizures. Benzodiazepines work by enhancing GABA inhibitory effects

Glumates

The brain’s primary excitatory neurotransmitter. Increases neural activity and is essential for learning and memory. Excessive glumate causes excitotoxicity damaging or killing neurons

Edorphines

The bodies natural painkillers,chemically similar to opioids. Released during exercise,stress, pain, and social bonding. Morphine and heroin mimic edophirns by binding to the same receptors.

Noreoinephrine

Regulates alertness,arosal, and the stress response. Anxiety high blood pressure and heart rate issues/heart palpitations are all symptoms of too much noreiphrene. Fatigue low energy, lack of focus, and depression are symptoms of too little epinephrine.

Substance P

Transmits pain signals from body to brain. Too much leads to chronic pain, anxiety, inflammation, and neurogenerative disorders while having too little rare but can affect immune functions and bone heating negatively

Adreneline

Released during flight to flight , accelerating heart rate and mobilizing energy

Leptin

Released by fat cells,signals satiety ( fullness) to the hypothalamus

Ghrelin

Released by the stomach signals hunger

Psychoactive drugs

Drugs are chemical substances that both psychological and physiological effect. Excessive use can lead to tolerance and addition. Drugs can be agnostic,antagonist or reuptake inhibitors

Stimulants

Increase neural activity ( caffeine, cocaine)

Depressants

Decrease neural activity ( alcohol)

Hallucinogens

distorts Perceptions and/or cognitions( marjiuana)

Opiods

acts as pain relivers ( heroin)

Medulla oblongata

specifically controls these vital autonomic functions

Pons

Above medulla in the brain stem. Relays motor and sensory information between cerebellum and cerebral cortex and regulates sleep awake systems

Reticular activating system (RAS)

A network of neurons running through the brain stem and control general arousal and alertness, essentially the brains on switch it filter incoming sensory information,determining what reaches conscious awareness.

Cerebellum

Controls balance, posture and supports motor learning and some form of procedural memory.

Thalamus

The brains sensory relay station. Vision hearing touch taste passes through the thalamus and is routed to the appropriate cortical area for processing. The one exception is smell

Hypothalamus

A structure below the thalamus that acts as the body’s master thermostat it regulates homeostasis including hunger thrist body temp circadian rythym, and arousal. it controls the endocrine system buy directing to pituitary gland.

Pituitary gland

master gland directed by the hypohalamus it regulates activity of other hormone producing glands throughout the body.

Amygdala

An almond shaped structure in the temporal lobe that processes emotions, fear and threat detection

Hippocampus

A seahorse shaped structure in the medial temporal lobe that consolidates memories converting short term memories into long term memories. it is not a storage ware house once consolidates memories are distributed across the cortex. Damage causes anterograde amnesia and the inability to form new memories

Cerebral cortex

The thin, wrinkled outer layer responsible for all higher order cognitive functions. Its fold and grooves dramatically increases surface area

Frontal Lobe

Contains prefrontal cortex ( excutive functiond planning decision making impulsive control , personality critical thinking organization and the motor cortex at its rear. Also controls linguistic processing and higher order.

Parietal lobe

Behind the frontal lobe. Contain somatosensory cortex ( processes touch pressure temperature pain) and association areas that process and organize information.

Temporal Lobe

On the side of the brains near the temple. Processes auditory and linguistic information. Houses Wernickes area, critical Comprehension→ Wenickes aphasia ( fluent but meaningless speech)

Ocipital lobe

At rear of the brain processes visual information. Damage can cause cortical blindness even when the eyes function normally.

FMri

measures blood flow to show which area are Active during task

EEg

Records electrical activity via scalp electordes

CT/MRI

scans show brain structure

Lesioning

destroy tissue to study behavioral effects. Case studies of brain damage patients provide crucial evidence about brain function

REM sleep

Produces brain wave similar to wakefuloness but the body is paralyzed by muscle atonia. Vivid narrative dreaming typically occurs here. REM frequency increases as the sleep cycle progresses.

ReM Rebound

ovvurs when REM deprived that compensate with extra ReM demonstrating a biological need for it

NRem stage 1

lightness sleep brief transition. That's waves on EEG. Hypnagogic sensation( feeling as if you feel or are floating seeing patterns light hearing music or voices

NREM stage 2

still theta waves body temp drips largest portion of Total sleep

NREM stage 3

Delta waves growth hormones released most restorative sleepwalking, sleep taking, and night terrors may occur

Activation synthesis

proposes that the brain stem generates random neural activity during REM and the cortex constructs a narrative( the dream)

Consolidation Theory

Proposes that sleep replays and strengthen memories encoded during waking

Insomina

persistent diffilculty falling asleep: most common disorder

Narcolepsy

Sudden uncontrollable REM nap during waking hours

Sleep apnea

Repeated breathing cessations during sleep

REM sleep behavior

Muscles Antonia fails allowing the person to act out dreams

Signal detection theory

Whether a stimulus is detected depends not only on its physical intensity but also on the observers psychological motivation expectations alerness

Farsightedness

results when a person eyeball is skinnier than usual

Nearsightness

results when a persons eyeball is fatter than normal

Trichomatic theory

Color perception results from combined activation of three cones

opponent Process theory

At the ganglion cells level, color is processing opposing pairs explains after images red=green, blue=yellow

Place Theory High

Different frequencies activate hair cells at different location on the basilar membrane

Frequency Theory Low

Basilar membrane vibrates at the same frequency as that sound

Volley Theory

Groups of neurons alternate firing rate

Conduction

results from damage to mechanical structures

Sensorineural deafness

results from damage to cochlear hear cells or the auditory nerve more common often permanent

Gates control theory

The spinal chord contains a neural gate that can be opened or closed the gate can closed by competing sensory input, edorphines release distractions or positive mood reducing pain signal reaching the brain

Vestibular sense

Detects balance spatial orientation and head position using fluid filled semicircular canals and otligth organs in the inner ear

Botton up processing

Taking raw sensory information andd making sense of it via no prior knowledge or expectation

Top - Down processing

Using context and experience to guide interpretation

Shemas

is a mental framework built from experience a perceptual set is predispositional

Inattention blindness

Failing to notice fully visible stimulus when attention is engaged elsewhere

Monocular depth

gives the illusion o flat surfaces using one eye

figure ground

separating focal objects from background

assimiloation

incorporating new information without changing schema

Representive heuristic

Judging probability that a shy person would be a librarian rather a sales person

Avalaibility heuristics

Overestimating dramtiv events

Priming

prior exposure to something

framing effect

how choices are worded

Explicit Memory : Episodic Memory

Personal Memory

Explicit Memory :Semantic

Fact and knowledge

Implicit Memory

Performance without recall

Procedural Memory

Skills and processes ex: learning to ride a bike

Multi- stored memory

sensory memory→ short term → long term

echonic memory

Brief memory of sounds

Iconic Memory

brief memory of images

Short term memory

only hold 7 +- 2 items for about 15-20 sec

Method of loci ( memory palace)

Associates items or thoughts with certain places in a location you know well