Memory

memory

the persistence of learning over time through the storage and retrieval of information.

recall

A measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier, as on a fill-in-the-blank test.

recognition

a measure of memory in which the person need only identify items previously learned, as on a multiple-choice test.

relearning

a measure of memory that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material for a second time.

Encoding

the processing of information into the memory system—for example, by extracting meaning.

storage

the process of retaining encoded information over time.

Retrieval

the process of getting information out of memory storage.

sensory memory

the immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system.

short-term memory

activated memory that holds a few items briefly before the information is stored or forgotten.

long-term memory

the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system.

working memory

a newer understanding of short-term memory focusing on conscious, active processing of incoming information.

central executive

part of Alan Baddeley's model of working memory that oversees and divides attention.

phonological loop

part of Alan Baddeley's model that allows for the repetition of verbal information.

visuospatial sketchpad

a memory component that briefly holds information about an object's appearance and location.

maintenance rehearsal

A system for remembering involving repeating information without seeking meaning.

elaborative rehearsal

a method of transferring information from STM into LTM by making it meaningful.

neurogenesis

the formation of new neurons.

long-term potentiation (LTP)

an increase in a synapse's firing potential believed to be a neural basis for learning.

explicit memory

retention of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and declare.

effortful processing

encoding that requires attention and conscious effort.

automatic processing

unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space and time.

implicit memory

retention of learned skills or conditioned associations independent of conscious recollection.

iconic memory

a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli lasting no more than a few tenths of a second.

echoic memory

a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; sounds can still be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds.

Chunking

organizing items into familiar, manageable units.

mnemonics

memory aids that use vivid imagery and organizational devices.

spacing effect

the tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention.

testing effect

enhanced memory after retrieving information rather than merely rereading it.

shallow processing

encoding on a basic level based on the structure or appearance of words.

deep processing

encoding semantically, based on the meaning of words; yields the best retention.

semantic memory

explicit memory of facts and general knowledge.

episodic memory

explicit memory of personally experienced events.

hippocampus

A neural center involved in processing explicit memories for storage.

memory consolidation

the neural storage of a long-term memory.

Amygdala

A limbic structure involved in memory and emotion, especially fear and aggression.

flashbulb memory

A clear and vivid long-term memory of an especially meaningful event.

Priming

the activation of certain associations that predispose one's perception or memory.

encoding specificity principle

the idea that specific cues and contexts improve recall of memories.

mood-congruent memory

the tendency to recall experiences consistent with one's current mood.

serial position effect

our tendency to recall best the last and first items in a list.

Interleaving

a retrieval practice strategy mixing the study of different topics.

Forgetting

the inability to retrieve memory from long-term storage.

anterograde amnesia

an inability to form new memories.

retrograde amnesia

an inability to retrieve information from one's past.

proactive interference

the disruptive effect of older learning on recalling new information.

retroactive interference

the disruptive effect of new learning on recalling old information.

Repression

the defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts.

reconsolidation

a process in which retrieved memories may be altered before being stored again.

misinformation effect

occurs when misleading information distorts memory of an event.

source amnesia

faulty memory for how, when, or where information was learned.

deja vu

the eerie sense that 'I've experienced this before.'

Hermann Ebbinghaus

the first person to study memory scientifically with nonsense syllables.

Richard Atkinson and Richard Shiffrin

proposed the classic three-stage processing model of memory.

Eric Kandel

studied the sea slug Aplysia and linked learning and memory to changes in synapses.

George Miller

found that short-term memory has a capacity of about seven items.

Elizabeth Loftus

her research on memory construction created doubts about eyewitness testimony.