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Anthropology

Study of humans past and present

Four fields of anthropology

Biological anthropology, cultural anthropology, archaeology, linguistics

Biological anthropology

Study of human biology, evolution, and variation

Paleoanthropology

Study of human evolution through fossils

Primatology

Study of living primates

Adaptation

Trait that increases survival and reproduction

Hypothesis

Testable explanation

Theory

Well-supported explanation of natural phenomena

Scientific method

Observation, hypothesis, testing, conclusion

Evolution

Change in populations over time

Charles Darwin

Scientist who developed natural selection

Alfred Russel Wallace

Co-discoverer of natural selection

Natural selection

Differential survival and reproduction of individuals

Fitness

Reproductive success

Lamarckism

Inheritance of acquired characteristics

Artificial selection

Human-directed breeding

Descent with modification

Species change over generations

DNA

Molecule carrying genetic information

Gene

Segment of DNA coding for a trait

Chromosome

DNA-containing structure in the nucleus

Human chromosome number

46 chromosomes

Genotype

Genetic makeup

Phenotype

Observable traits

Allele

Alternative form of a gene

Mutation

Change in DNA sequence

Mitosis

Cell division producing identical cells

Meiosis

Cell division producing gametes

Crossing over

Exchange of DNA during meiosis

Gametes

Sperm and egg cells

Transcription

Process of copying DNA into RNA

Translation

Process of using RNA to build proteins

Dominant allele

Expressed whenever present

Recessive allele

Expressed only when homozygous

Gregor Mendel

Father of genetics

Homozygous

Two identical alleles

Heterozygous

Two different alleles

Microevolution

Small-scale genetic change within populations

Macroevolution

Large-scale evolutionary change

Gene flow

Movement of genes between populations

Genetic drift

Random change in allele frequencies

Deme

Local breeding population

Reproductive isolation

Prevention of gene exchange

Speciation

Formation of new species

Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium

State in which evolution is not occurring

Hardy-Weinberg assumptions

No mutation, migration, selection, drift, and random mating

Allele frequency

Proportion of an allele in a population

Sickle-cell trait

Mutation that provides malaria resistance

Race biological validity

Race is not a biologically valid category

Johann Blumenbach

Early classifier of human races

Franz Boas

Anthropologist who challenged biological race concepts

Richard Lewontin

Scientist who showed most variation exists within populations

Clines

Gradual geographic variation in traits

Life history

Pattern of growth, reproduction, and aging

Senescence

Biological aging

Genetic adaptation

Inherited evolutionary response

Developmental adaptation

Adaptation occurring during growth

Acclimatization

Reversible physiological adjustment

Cultural adaptation

Behavioral solution to environmental challenges

Primate

Mammal adapted to arboreal life

Arboreal

Tree-dwelling

Stereoscopic vision

Depth perception from overlapping visual fields

Opposable thumb

Thumb capable of touching fingertips

Strepsirrhines

Lemurs and lorises

Haplorrhines

Tarsiers, monkeys, apes, and humans

Anthropoids

Monkeys, apes, and humans

Hominoids

Apes and humans

Catarrhines

Old World monkeys and apes

Platyrrhines

New World monkeys

Primate culture

Learned behavior transmitted socially

Grooming

Social bonding behavior

Parental investment

Time and energy devoted to offspring

Dominance hierarchy

Ranking system within a social group

Fossil

Preserved remains or traces of organisms

Taphonomy

Study of fossilization processes

Relative dating

Determining older versus younger age

Absolute dating

Determining numerical age

Steno's Law of Superposition

Older rock layers lie beneath younger layers

Half-life

Time for half of radioactive atoms to decay

Radiocarbon dating

Dating method for organic materials up to 50,000 years old

Potassium-argon dating

Dating method for volcanic rock millions of years old

Sedimentary rock

Rock type where fossils form

Igneous rock

Rock type commonly used for radiometric dating

Paleomagnetic dating

Dating method using magnetic field reversals

Dendrochronology

Tree-ring dating

Oxygen isotopes

Used to reconstruct past climates

Carbon isotopes

Used to reconstruct ancient diets and habitats

C3 plants

Trees and shrubs

C4 plants

Tropical grasses and open-environment plants

Cenozoic Era

Current geological era

Adapids

Early primate group appearing about 55 million years ago

Omomyids

Early primate group appearing about 55 million years ago

Aegyptopithecus

Early catarrhine primate from Africa

Branisella

Early platyrrhine primate from South America

Proconsul

Early African ape

Sivapithecus

Eurasian ape related to orangutans

Gigantopithecus

Giant extinct ape related to orangutans

Adaptive radiation

Rapid diversification into many species

Y-5 molar pattern

Five-cusped molar pattern characteristic of apes

Hominin

Member of human lineage after divergence from chimpanzees

Bipedalism

Habitual walking on two legs