AP Psyc Unit 2: Cognition (copy)

What influences perception: bottom-up vs top-down processing?

Bottom-up relies on external sensory data; top-down uses internal expectations and prior knowledge

Give an example of bottom-up processing when driving.

Noticing road conditions, other vehicles, and traffic signals

Give an example of top-down processing when driving.

Using prior knowledge to brake on seeing a red light

What is a schema?

A cognitive framework that helps organize and interpret information

What is a perceptual set?

A predisposition to perceive things in a particular way

Name three external factors that filter perception.

Context, experiences, and cultural expectations

List four Gestalt perceptual principles.

Closure; figure-ground; proximity; similarity

What is the cocktail party effect?

Selective attention to a personally relevant stimulus (e.g., hearing your name in noise)

What is change blindness?

Failure to notice changes in the environment due to inattention

What is retinal disparity?

A binocular depth cue: difference between images on each retina

What is convergence?

A binocular depth cue: inward movement of eyes to focus on close objects

Name three monocular depth cues.

Relative clarity; relative size; linear perspective

What is texture gradient?

A monocular cue: closer objects have more detailed textures

What is interposition?

A monocular cue: overlapping objects appear farther away

What is shape constancy?

Perceiving an object’s shape as constant despite changes in retinal image

What is size constancy?

Perceiving an object’s size as constant despite distance changes

What is color constancy?

Perceiving familiar colors consistently under varying illumination

What is brightness constancy?

Perceiving an object’s brightness as constant despite lighting

What is apparent movement?

Perceiving motion where none exists (e.g., phi phenomenon)

What is a concept in thinking?

A mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people

What is a prototype?

The best example of a concept

Define assimilation.

Interpreting new information to fit existing schemas

Define accommodation.

Adjusting schemas to incorporate new information

What is an algorithm?

A step-by-step problem-solving procedure that guarantees a solution

Give an example of an algorithm.

Tying your shoes using a fixed sequence of steps

What is a heuristic?

A mental shortcut or rule of thumb for making decisions

What is the representativeness heuristic?

Judging likelihood based on how well something matches a prototype

What is the availability heuristic?

Judging likelihood based on how easily examples come to mind

What is a mental set?

Approaching problems using a previously successful strategy

What is priming?

Exposure to a stimulus influences response to a later stimulus

What is framing?

Presenting information in positive or negative terms to influence decisions

What is gambler’s fallacy?

Belief that past random events affect future ones

What is sunk-cost fallacy?

Continuing a behavior due to prior investments, even if it’s unwise

Define convergent thinking.

Focusing on one best solution to a problem

Define divergent thinking

Creating many unique solutions to a problem

What is lateral thinking?

Solving problems by using an indirect and creative approach

What are executive functions?

Cognitive processes for planning, decision-making, and goal-directed behavior

What is explicit memory?

Conscious memory of facts and experiences

What is episodic memory?

Memory of specific events

What is semantic memory?

Memory of general knowledge and facts

What is implicit memory?

Unconscious memory, such as skills and procedures

What is procedural memory?

Implicit memory of motor skills and actions

What is prospective memory?

Remembering to perform future actions

What is long-term potentiation?

A biological process that strengthens synapses with frequent activation

Name the components of Baddeley’s working memory model.

Central executive; phonological loop; visuospatial sketchpad

What does the central executive do?

Directs attention, manages tasks, and coordinates working memory subsystems

What is the phonological loop?

Holds verbal and auditory information in working memory

What is the visuospatial sketchpad?

Holds visual and spatial information in working memory

What are the three stores in the multi-store model?

Sensory memory; short-term memory; long-term memory

What are the levels of processing?

Structural; phonemic; semantic

What are mnemonic devices?

Techniques to aid encoding into memory

Name three mnemonic types.

Acronyms; method of loci; chunking

What is chunking?

Grouping information into meaningful units

What is the method of loci?

Associating items with physical locations in a mental map

What is the spacing effect?

Distributed practice over time enhances memory

What is the serial position effect?

Recall is better for items at the beginning or end of a list

What is the primacy effect?

Better recall of items at the beginning of a list

What is the recency effect?

Better recall of items at the end of a list

Name five types of sensory memory.

Haptic; echoic; iconic; olfactory; gustatory

How long does iconic memory last?

About 0.5 seconds

How long does echoic memory last?

Several seconds

What is the capacity of short-term memory?

7 ± 2 items

How long does short-term memory last without rehearsal?

15–30 seconds

What determines working memory capacity?

The amount of information attended to and processed

What is the duration of working memory?

About 10–15 seconds without rehearsal

What is the capacity of long-term memory?

Essentially unlimited

What is maintenance rehearsal?

Repeating information to keep it in short-term memory

What is elaborative rehearsal?

Linking new information meaningfully to existing knowledge

What is infantile amnesia?

Inability of adults to recall early childhood events (before age 3)

What is recall?

Retrieving information without cues

What is recognition?

Identifying correct information from options

What is context-dependent memory?

Better recall when encoding and retrieval contexts match

What is mood-congruent memory?

Better recall of information matching current mood

What is state-dependent memory?

Better recall when internal state at encoding matches retrieval

What is the testing effect?

Enhanced memory after retrieving information through practice tests

What is metacognition?

Awareness and understanding of one’s own thought processes

What is the forgetting curve?

A pattern of rapid initial forgetting that levels off over time

What is proactive interference?

Old information interferes with new learning

What is retroactive interference?

New information interferes with recall of old learning

What is the misinformation effect?

Memory distortion from misleading post-event information

What is source amnesia?

Forgetting the origin of a memory

What is constructive memory?

Reconstructing memories by filling in gaps, which can lead to errors

What is overconfidence effect?

Overestimating the accuracy of one’s knowledge or predictions

What is hindsight bias?

Perceiving past events as having been predictable after they occur

Define intelligence.

The ability to learn from experience, solve problems, and adapt to new situations

What is Spearman’s g factor?

A general intelligence underlying all mental abilities

What are Thurstone’s primary mental abilities?

Seven clusters such as verbal comprehension and spatial ability

What are Gardner’s multiple intelligences?

Eight independent intelligences like musical and interpersonal

What are Sternberg’s three intelligences?

Analytical; creative; practical

What is emotional intelligence?

The ability to perceive, understand, and manage emotions

What is fluid intelligence?

Reasoning and solving novel problems; declines with age

What is crystallized intelligence?

Accumulated knowledge and skills; stable or increases with age

Who created the first intelligence test?

Alfred Binet