Archeology Final

Domestication

the process of changing plants or animals to make them more useful to humans

Neolithic

The period of the Stone Age associated with the ancient Agricultural Revolution. It follows the Paleolithic period. - ‘New Stone Age’

Neolithic revolution

A turning point in the stone age when humans began farming.

Holocene

The current interglaciation period, extending from 10,000 years ago to the present on the geologic time scale.

Indigenous development

“the growth or progress of an indigenous community in their originality or within the context of their ethnic identity in a holistic way”

Diffusion

practice of domesticating plants and animals spread there from Middle East around 8,500 years
ago (“Wave of Advance”). by 6,000 years ago, most societies in Western Europe practicing
agriculture.

Fertile Crescent

A geographical area of fertile land in the Middle East stretching in a broad semicircle from the Nile to the Tigris and Euphrates

Kebaran, Geometric Kebaran

Don’t have evidence for domestication of plants or animals BUT have evidence that
they were using a wide range of resources – complex hunter gatherers
• using more reliable, abundant resources: therefore, can live in groups of larger peoples (high
density)

Natufian (15,000-12,000)

Sites:
• Mallaha (Israel), also during this time period (and later Neolithic)
• Abu Hureyra (Syria) – significant because plant remains were recovered. Some
differences from other Natufian sites (different types of houses).

first society in the Middle East to construct buildings (of stone)

Younger Dryas

geological time period when climate suddenly changed to conditions similar to glacial
period during Pleistocene (‘Little Ice Age’). 12,900 – 11,500 years ago

Pre-Pottery Neolithic A

(12,000-10,800 years ago)
Site at Jericho (idea of communal structures)

Pre-Pottery Neolithic B

(10,800 -8,500 years ago) – plastered skulls, display items, ex. Ain Ghazal (rituals).

Late Neolithic

pottery, different forms of stone tools, different kinds of settlement patterns
– central and western Turkey: dense village settlements (ex. Catalhoyuk – 9000-8000 years ago: rooms
decorated with frescos – interpreted as ritual spaces by some).

Corn, beans and
squash

These three crops
make up the
“Three sisters” in
Native American
culture

Mesolithic (Europe)

Mesolithic: time period between Upper Paleolithic and Neolithic
(defined as beginning of agriculture – started later in Europe than in Middle East) Ex.
Mesolithic: Lepinski Vir,

Language dispersal hypothesis:

idea that huge groups of farmers migrated into
Europe as result of population pressure – replaced Hunter Gatherer populations with their
whole new way of life – agriculture but also language, ritual behavior etc.
• Now confirmed with genetic evidence.

Tehuacán Valley and Oaxaca Valley

First evidence for domestication in Mexico looking at
CAVE SITES: plant remains. NO SETTLED VILLAGES.

Cerro Jaunaqueña

(northern Mexico), evidence for domestication during Late Archaic period –IRRIGATION
• But don’t have lot of evidence for permanent settled villages at many of these place.

Jornada Mogollon

people living there not adopting agricultural lifestyle for another 2000 years: about 1000
years ago (AD 1000)

Optimal foraging
theory

This theory suggests
that people make
predictable decisions
based on rational self-
interest

El Nino

This climatic event is
believed to have pushed
groups living on the
Pacific coast of South
America to adopt plant
cultivation.

Early/Middle Woodland Periods:

3,200-1,700 years ago – when people started to plant maize

Hopewell culture:

Middle Woodland period

Poverty Point

EARTHWORKS - Long tradition that reaches peak at CAHOKIA
• Difficult for early Europeans to understand. Often attributed to other groups rather than
Native Americans.

This prehistoric
Japanese culture
was one of the first
to make pottery.

Jomon culture

Nabta Playa

settled villages of complex hunter gatherers before domestication developed
(Egypt) at the edge of a lake – lots of resources
• site there: rows of 15 huts 9,000 years ago
• some pottery – impressed designs

Uan Afuda

Afuda (Libya) – cave site: really good preservation. Pre-agricultural society.
Evidence that they were keeping WILD sheep penned up in the back of the cave (9-8000 years
ago)

Pastoralism

mobile societies that rely on herding domesticated animals – cows, sheep, goats
• Pottery BEFORE domestication (unlike in Middle East: only during Late Neolithic). (Found at
many above sites)
• Plant agriculture – detail/when and how adopted not well known:
• Also – no evidence for pottery until about 800 years ago (relatively late)

Uan Muhuggiag

Earliest evidence for domestication (Libya) 7,000 years ago

Pastoralism

– mobile societies that rely on herding domesticated animals – cows, sheep, goats
• Pottery BEFORE domestication (unlike in Middle East: only during Late Neolithic). (Found at
many above sites)
• Plant agriculture – detail/when and how adopted not well known:
• Also – no evidence for pottery until about 800 years ago (relatively late)

Feasting

Evidence for this includes trash such as discarded animal bones

Kuk Swamp

First evidence for domestication of plants during later periods
– see more extensive developments like ditches to drain swamp

Pollen

Pollen analysis is one scientific method that archeologists use. Archeologists combine collected pollen data with historical research to answer questions about environmental conditions and human actions of the past, and the influences each had upon the other.

Phytoliths

Microscopic silica body within a plant's structure that archaeologists can use to reconstruct plant profiles. The inorganic remains survive in the archaeological record and are diagnostic to plants, and parts of plants

Andean highlands

2nd highest mountain chain in the world. Ecological zone changes with the altitude

Pacific Coast

– desert climate but ocean very rich in resources.

Humboldt Coast

current goes along west coast of South America:
major upwelling – bringing lots of nutrients to the waters there so very rich in sea life (effects Pacific Coast)

Guitarrero Cave

evidence for domesticated beans 4,300 years ago

Camelids

Domesticated animals: llamas and alpacas

Paloma

Village – about 10 (small) – houses built of reeds and grasses over structure of wooden poles
• Depending mostly on marine resources: ‘Pre-agricultural’(little bit of domestication
(gourds) but not much)
• lots of burials. Pretty uniform in terms of treatment – NO evidence for social
hierarchy

Cotton Preceramic

About 5,700 years ago, larger site in costal areas
(Ex: Caral)

Caral

Example of Cotton Preceramic

El Nino

This climatic event is
believed to have pushed
groups living on the
Pacific coast of South
America to adopt plant
cultivation.

Jomon culture

This prehistoric
Japanese culture
was one of the first
to make pottery

Rice Paddy

Need for irrigation (South China)

Pengtoushan

Neolithic culture
Site in south china approx. 9,000 years ago

Bashidang

Large villages – evidence for domestication of rice, defensive ditches, storage
pits, graves. Bones of wild animals indicate that people were still hunting very good preservation of organic deposits: waterlogged
site preserved wooden house remains. (South China)

Peiligang culture

North China = 8,000 years ago – cultivation of millet

Yangshou culture

6,500 years ago (North China)
Semi-subterranean houses AND rectangular houses on surface
• Exploitation of wild resources: fish, fruits, nuts
• Domestication of Millet, dogs, pigs
• Painted ceramic vessels

Social Inequality

differential access to and use of resources across various domains

Surplus

Extra

Authority

the power or right to give orders, make decisions, and enforce obedience

Legitimacy

Right and acceptance of a leader

Consensus

The approach to an issue where both parties reach an agreement without the use of force

Coercion

The approach to an issue where a result is reached using force (blackmail, etc)

Morton Fried - 4 types of societies

EGALITARIAN SOCIETIES: People generally considered equal – same status (differences
based on age, gender, also – skill at some activities)
(BAND – similar principle. No one that really has more power over rest of society)
• RANKED SOCIETIES: beginning to get hierarchy (limited prestige/authority) – status not just
based on age/gender but also on something else – ex. order of birth (eldest born). Important
men/ ‘Big men’ – central figure in collection of resources but don’t necessarily take more
resources than other people – not more wealthy etc.
(TRIBE – similar principle. Still not that much more power over the rest of authority)
• STRATIFIED SOCIETIES: now when you really start to see more divisions between society –
some people with more access to resources than others. Major characteristic: EXPLOITATION
(of lower class/people with less prestige/power etc.) – forced labor, slavery, dev’t of complex
social or political systems to maintain authority – earlier forms: more connections through
family. Now connections are made between different groups – not just based on kinship
(CHIEFDOM – similar: idea of centralized authority/leaders based on heredity/kinship.
Generally – can’t really use FORCE to maintain authority: depend on things like
religious authority - consensus)

• STATES (both Fried and Service) – power organized/maintained by a central authority – NOT
just based on family group/kinship – USE OF FORCE (legitimate use of force) by
BUREAUCRACY – organization, structure of government.

Elman Service - bands/tribes/chiefdoms/states

(BAND – similar principle to an egalitarian society. No one that really has more power over rest of society)
(TRIBE – similar principle to ranked societies. Still not that much more power over the rest of authority)
(CHIEFDOM – similar to stratified societies: idea of centralized authority/leaders based on heredity/kinship.
Generally – can’t really use FORCE to maintain authority: depend on things like
religious authority - consensus)
STATES (both Fried and Service) – power organized/maintained by a central authority – NOT
just based on family group/kinship – USE OF FORCE (legitimate use of force) by
BUREAUCRACY – organization, structure of government

Urban Revolution

the processes by which agricultural village societies developed into socially, economically, and politically complex urban societies

Megaliths

monuments made out of large stones.

Stonehenge

• Phase 1 – Earthwork Circle – round ditch: 110 meters diameter. Ring of wooden posts
‘Aubrey holes’ – Late Neolithic c. 5,000 years ago
• Phase 2 - Burials and Timber- ditch and holes from ↑ filled in, human
burials, structure of wooden posts in center – c. 5,000-4,500 years ago (during 500 years
after initial construction ↑)
• Phase 3 – Stone Monuments – structures made of large stones: also made
over time during different ‘stages’ Between 4,500-3,500 years ago
• Phase 3a – Bluestones: circular/semi circular formation of stones in center:
smaller size stones then later but interesting because type comes from far
away: Preseli Mountains in Wales (240 km away)
• Phase 3b – Sarsen Circle and Trilithions: Large sandstone
(more local – about 30 km away) set up around perimeter of site.
• Phase 3c-f: Rearrangement/Digging holes: people moving around the
bluestones, also dug circles of holes around the site

Avenue, Cursus

earthworks, enclosures in the area (Stonehenge in Europe)

Amesbury Archer

The Amesbury Archer is an early Bronze Age man whose grave was discovered during excavations at the site of a new housing development in Amesbury near Stonehenge.

Hohokam culture

(AD 200) - Chaco Canyon. Starting to see evidence for increased complexity from around 1,250 years ago

Pueblo culture

Chaco Canyon AD 800-1150 - Starting to see evidence for increased complexity from around 1,250 years ago

Chaco Canyon

This place in the
Southwest USA was
inhabited by groups of
elites from the Pueblo
Culture.

Pueblo Bonito

Largest site in Chaco Canyon. 650 room – including Kivas

Kivas

subterranean circular chambers (have religious significance in
modern Pueblo villages)

Chacoan Network

Idea that Chaco Canyon was center of a linked system/networks:

Cahokia

AD 1000-1400. Few hundred years after Chaco and further to the east – area of Mississippi valley (Mississippian
culture)

Monk’s Mound

Principle one of the Cahokia settlement with many large mounds with

Great Zimbabwe

This African site is
characterized by
large stone
enclosures

Dhaka

circular huts made of a
clay/gravel mixture (Great Zimbabwe)

Characteristics of a State

• urban centers/cities (how to define? questionable – large population center - ≈5000+,
major public buildings – temples, work places for administrative bureaucracy) **
• Settlement hierarchy – cities and villages **
• Social hierarchy - ruling CLASS: class
• surplus production and storage
• monumental architecture
• specialist craftsmen
• taxes to a deity (temple) or king/ruler **
• writing systems **
• exact and predictive sciences **
• sophisticated art styles
• foreign trade

Comparative method

an arrangement of social or cultural conditions observed among existing peoples into a series that is then taken to represent a process of evolution.

Urbanism

detailing development of some of the first societies with CITIES

Settlement hierachy

Found in cities and villages. A way of arranging settlements into a hierarchy based upon their population or some other criteria

Specialists

Craftsmen

Mesopotamia

(Iraq, Syria, Turkey, Iran)
classic “urban” state
Area between 2 river: Tigris and Euphrates
• many early sites deeply buried (river silts)
• no mineral resources in southern Mesopotamia – building material of mud (mud
brick) and reeds
• very fertile soil

Ubaid

First well represented period. Ubaid period

Uruk period

4000-3200 BC (first cities in mesopotamia)

Early Dynastic period

Early Dynastic period: 3200-2350 - Mesopotamia

Ziggurat

temples - (precursor of pyramids)

cuneiform

first develop during Uruk period (writing)

cylinder seals

Used to write on in early Mesopotamia along with clay balls called bullae and script

Habuba Kebira

– NW of Uruk and Ur along Euphrates: “colony” of Uruk. only
occupied during Uruk period. Other similar sites – same artifacts as southern
Mesopotamia.

Nile River Valley

Location of ancient Egypt.

Nile Delta

North end of the Nile River Valley. River spreads out into different branches as it flows
towards Mediterranean. Wider fertile area

Upper Egypt

(Southern Part)

Lower Egypt

(Northern Part)

Predynastic period

Time before Egypt was united in 3000 BC. Before this was the Predynastic period

Early Dynastic

3 kingdoms forming along Nile River Valley
3000 – 2575 BC

Stele King Narmer

Upper and Lower Egypt conquered by King Narmer : on one side of stele: wearing crown of Upper
Egypt, on other side, wearing crown of Lower Egypt. Idea is that he ruled BOTH
(Early Dynastic 3000-2575 BC)

Old Kingdom

(2575-2134 BC) Egypt

First Intermediate

(2134-2040 BC)

Middle Kingdom

(2040-1640 BC)

Second Intermediate

(1640-1532 BC)

New Kingdom

(1532-1070 BC)

Third Intermediate

(1070-712 BC)

Pharaoh

The ruler in the Egyptian State?

(Divine Kingship)

ASSOCIATION WITH DIVINITY