final exam anatomy LESS GOO

what are the layers of the alimentary canal and the functions of each layer?

1. mucosa: absorbs nutrients, secretes mucus

2. submucosa: blood vessels, nerves

3. muscularis: moves food via contractions

4. serosa: protective outer layer

what body systems carry excretory functions?

• digestive

• urinary

• respiratory

• integumentary

anabolism vs. catabolism

anabolism: building molecules → uses energy

catabolism: breaking molecules → releases energy

*both build and repair tissues and fuel the body

what is the difference between glycogen and glucagon?

glycogen → a stored form of glucose

glucagon →hormone that breaks glycogen down + raises blood sugar

what are microvilli in relation to the small intestine?

microvilli increase surface area massively which increases nutrient absorption

what organelle of the cell is responsible for the production of energy for cellular processes

mitochondria

what are the difference between all the digestive terms?

• mastication: chewing

• maceration: softening

• deglutition: swallowing → *buccal and pharyngeal phase

• peristalsis: wave-like propulsions through small and large intestine

• segmentation: mixing contractions

what are the four parts of the stomach?

cardia, fundus, body, pyloris

what are the 3 muscles in the stomach wall?

• oblique: inner most → churning

• circular: middle most → squeezing

• longitudinal: out most → shortening/moving food

what is the function of rugae, parietal cells, chyme, and hydrochloric acid?

• Rugae: folds the allow the stomach to expand

• parietal cells: secrete hydrochloric acid and intrinsic factor

• chyme: semifluid mixture of food + gastric juices sent to small intestine

• hydrochloric: breaks down food, kills bacteria, and activates pepsin

What is the path of urine flow through various parts of the kidney?

• Gomerulus → Bowmans capsule → PCT → loop of henle → DCT → collecting duct → renal pelvis → ureter → bladder → urethra

what urine production terms?

• Filteration: glomerulus filters blood into the Bowman’s capsule

• Reabsoprtion: PCT and Loop of henle reabsorb water/nutrients

• secretion: DCT and secretes waste into filterate

what is the difference between healthy and unhealthy urine?

• unhealthy: ketones, glucose, blood, bacteria

• healthy: water, urea, salts, yellow color, slightly acidic

What is the signifcance of the urinarys system’s ability to reabsorb blood components back into the bloodstream?

• prevents loss of essential substances, maintains homeostasis, blood pressure, and fluid balance

what is the involvement of ions in action potential?

• NA+ → sodium rushes in causes depolarization

• K+ → potassium rushes out causing repolarizatiom

• sodium potassium pump → restores the resting state

do you understand and graph the electrical charges on both sides on the neuron membrane?

yes

compare nervous impulse to flipping a light switch and flushing the toilet

• light swtich: all-or-nothing neuron firing

• flushing toilet: refractory period; must reset before firing again

what are all the kinds of divisions?

sensory (afferent) → arrives to the brain

motor (efferent) → exits the brain to the muscles

• sympathetic: fight or flight

• parasympathetic: resting sensations

• autonomic: involuntary functions

• somatic: voluntary functions

what are the names and functions of the 6 neuroglia?

1. astrocytes: star shaped, form blood brain barrier, support and nourish neurons

2. microglia: small, immune defense, remove debris

3. ependymal: cells line ventricles, produces cerebral spinal fluid

4. Oligodendrocytes: maintain the myelin sheath

5. schwann cells: form myelin insulation in the PNS

6. satellite cells: support neurons in PNS ganglia

acetylcholine vs acetylcholinesterase

ACH: transmits nerve signals across synapses

erase: enzymes that breaks down ACH to stop the signal

what are the parts of the brain

• cerebrum: thinking, memory, movement, senses

• cerebellum: balance and coordinations

• brainstem: (medulla, pons, midbrain) → breathing, heart rate, and reflexes

• thalamus: sensory relay

• hypothalamus: homeostasis, hunger, and temperature

What are the main parts of the eye?

• cornea: refracts light

• lens: focuses light

• iris: controls pupil size

• pupil: lets light in the eye

• optic nerve: sends signals to the brain

• sclera: protective white outer layer

what are the five kinds of receptors?

thermo: temperature

noci: pain detectors

mechano: pressure/touch

photo: loght

chemo: taste/smell

what are the function, contents, and location of the lacrimal glands?

• located in the upper corner of each eye

• function: produces tears to lubricate/protect eye

• contents: water, salts, and lysozyme

what are the functions of the four lobes of the cerebrum?

1. frontal: decision-making, personality

2. parietal: touch, spatial awareness

3. temporal: hearing

4. occipital: eye-sight

what is the difference between exocrine and endocrine glands?

exocrine: ducts to the surface → such as salivary or sweat glands

endocrine: hormones into blood

what does the anterior pituitary gland secrete?

Thyroid stimulating: causes thyroid to produce thyroxine

ACTH: stimulates adrenal glands

growth: stimulates growth in bones and muscles

melanocyte: stimulates melanocytes to produce melanin

prolactin: breast milk production

gonadotropins: (lutenizing: stimulates release of sex hormones) (follicle stimulating: stimulates egg and sperm productiom)

what does the posterior pituitary gland secrete?

ADH: water retention in the kidneys

oxytocin: contractions during childbirth

what does the pineal gland secrete?

melatonin: tiredness → sleep-wake cycle

what does the thyroid gland secrete?

calcitonin: decreases calcium levels in the blood (parathyroid glands do the opposite of this)

thyroid hormones: (T3: oxygen usage and maintains blood pressure) (T4: regulate metabolism and body heat production)

what do the adrenal glands secrete?

1. medulla → epinephrine and norephinephrine

2. cortex → cortisol/DHEA: precurser to sex hormones & aldosterone: regulate electrolyte balance

Cushings vs Addisons disease:

• cushings → too much cortisol: weight gain, moon face, high BP

• addisons → too little cortisol: weight loss, fatique, low BP

what is the difference between diabetes mellitus and insipidus?

mellitus: lack of insulin/resistance → high blood glucose

insipidus: lack of ADH → dilute urine/dehydration

what does the pancreas secrete?

beta cells → insulin: lowers blood glucose

alpha cells → glucagon: raises blood glucose

what does the thymus gland secrete?

produces thymopoetin, thymic factor, and thymosin which is all involved in the development of the immune system

what does gonad(s) gland secrete?

females: estrogen = maturation of reproduction organs and secondary sex characteristics/ progesterone = causes breast development and control of menstrual cycle

males: testosterone and androgens + DHT = maturation of reproductive organs and secondary sex characteristics + sperm production/

negative vs positive feedback:

negative: shuts of the stimulus; ex: insulin

positive: amplifies the stimulus; ex: oxytocin during childbirth

Why is blood considered a connective tissues?

blood has cells suspended in a matrix called plasma

describe the layers of the heart?

• protective surface of the heart: pericardium

• epicardium (visceral): inner layer of serous membrane; attached to the surface of the heart

• (minor serous layer) Parietal Layer: The outer portion of the serous pericardium that is fused to the inside of the fibrous pericardium.

• myocardium: thick twisting bundles of cardiac muscles to provide contractions

• endocardium: thin layer lining the heart chambers

difference between the pulmonary and systemic circuts?

pulmonary: heart → lungs → heart (picks up oxygen)

systemic: heart → body → heart (delivers oxygen)

do you know the blood circulation through the heart?

yes

what are the four major valves of the heart

tricuspid: right atrium/ventricle

pulmonary: right ventricle → pulmonary artery

LUNGS

bicuspid: left atrium/ventricle

aortic: left ventricle → aorta

describe the pathway of the heart through diastole and systole:

atria contracts: systole → ventricles relax diastole

^ other way around

what are the 2 major nodes in the heart? what is considered the cardiac pacemaker?

SA NODE: begins impulse and causes atrial contraction in the right atrium also known as the cardiac pacemaker

AV NODE: between atria and ventricles, lets atria empty into the ventricles

compare arteries, veins, and capillaries:

arts: thick muscular walls, carries blood away from heart, high pressure

veins: thin walls, carries blood too heart, low pressure

caps: thick, site of gas/nutrient exchange

what is antherosclerosis?

plaque build up on artery walls

what are the parts/functions of the male repoductive system?

• Seminiferous tubules – Tiny coiled tubes inside the testes where sperm are produced.

• Testes – Male reproductive organs that produce sperm and the hormone testosterone.

• Epididymis – A long, coiled tube on the back of each testis where sperm mature and are stored.

• Ductus deferens (vas deferens) – A tube that carries sperm from the epididymis to the ejaculatory duct.

• Seminal vesicles – Glands that add a sugary fluid to sperm to help nourish and energize them.

• Prostate gland – A gland that adds fluid to semen to help protect and activate sperm.

• Ejaculatory duct – A short tube that carries semen into the urethra during ejaculation.

• Penis – The external male reproductive organ that delivers semen and also allows urine to leave the body.

what is oogenesis vs spermatogenesis?

spermato: continous sperm production since puberty

oog: egg production, before birth

what is the difference between primary and secondary reproductive organs?

primary: F/M gonads → produce gametes and hormones

secondary: all other structures that support reproduction

what are some symptoms of sexually transmitted diseases?

• burning

• itching

• fever/swollen neck glands

• discharge

• list goes on… be safe yall

Describe the parts of the lymphatic system:

Lymph nodes: act as the body’s security checkpoints in the neck

tonsils: protect ring around the throat to block foreign invaders

Peyer’s patches: lymphocytes near the small intestine to filter food and keep good bacteria within

thymus: produces thymosin → T lymph maturation

spleen: (white pulp: filters the blood) (red pulp: removes worn-out RBC)

active vs passive immunity:

active: body makes its own antibodies: infection

passive: antibodies are recieved: injection/mothers milk

plasma vs lymph vs interstitial fluid:

1. plasma: in blood vessels, carries cells/ nutrients

2. lymph: in lymph vessels/ excess fluid is collected and brought to the blood

3. interstitial: surrounds cells in tissues

humoral vs cell-mediated immunity:

humoral: uses b lymphocytes → produces antibodies against pathogens in blood

cell-mediated: uses t lymphocytes → t helped cells help activate immune response while killer t cells destroy infected cells directly

what are some major functions of the blood:

transport oxygen and carbon dioxide, nutrients, hormones, waste; regulates temperature and protect via clotting and immunity

what are the %/components of blood:

• plasma: 55%, liquid matrix, less dense

• buffy coat: <1% WBCs and platelets

• RBC: 45%, most dense

what are all the types/functions of leukocytes?

• Neutrophils – The most common white blood cells; they quickly attack and destroy bacteria and are the body’s first responders to infection.

• Lymphocytes – Cells involved in specific immunity; B cells make antibodies, while T cells attack infected or abnormal cells.

• Monocytes – Large white blood cells that develop into macrophages and clean up dead cells, bacteria, and debris. (agran)

• Eosinophils – White blood cells that help fight parasites and are involved in allergic reactions and asthma.

• Basophils – The least common leukocytes; they release histamine and other chemicals during allergic and inflammatory responses. (agran)

what is the universal donor? recipient?

donor: TYPE O NEGATIVE/ has no antigens to cause reactions with others

recipient: TYPE AB POSITIVE/ has ALL antigens so no reaction occurs

describe the trachea, bronchi, pharynx, bronchioles, and aveoli:

• Trachea – the windpipe that carries air to the lungs

• Bronchi – two main tubes that branch from the trachea into the lungs

• Pharynx – the throat; passageway for air and food

• Bronchioles – smaller branches inside the lungs that carry air to alveoli

• Alveoli – tiny air sacs where oxygen and carbon dioxide are exchanged

what are the major functions of the respiratory system:

• gas exchange

• regulates blood PH

• filters warm/humid air

function of the diaphragm?

• dome shaped muscle below the lungs

• contracts → lungs expand → flattens

• relaxes → domes → lungs compress

what are 5 effects of vaping on the lungs?

1. lung inflammation

2. death

3. popcorn lung

4. nicotine addiction

5. risk of infection

do you know the respiratory infections?

yes